Holding

Education is a fundamental right under Article 21 limited to free schooling up to age 14; there is no fundamental right to establish or obtain recognition for educational institutions, and Section 3‑A permitting capitation fees violates Article 14.

Summary

The Supreme Court held that the right to education is a fundamental right flowing from Article 21, but it is limited to free education up to the age of fourteen and thereafter subject to the State’s economic capacity. The Court rejected the notion of a fundamental right to establish or obtain recognition for educational institutions under Article 19(1)(g) and declared that recognition and affiliation may be conditioned by the State. It struck down Section 3‑A of the Andhra Pradesh Educational Institutions (Regulation of Admission and Prohibition of Capitation Fee) Act, 1983 as violative of Article 14 because it permitted private professional colleges to admit students at their discretion and to collect capitation fees. The Court also laid down a detailed scheme governing admissions, fee structures and the distinction between free and payment seats for professional colleges, applying to all private unaided medical, dental, engineering and other technical institutions.

Issues considered

The existence and scope of a fundamental right to education under Article 21, including whether it extends beyond free education up to age 14.
Whether a citizen has a fundamental right to establish and run an educational institution under Article 19(1)(g).
Whether recognition or affiliation of private educational institutions creates a fundamental right or makes the institution a State instrumentality.
The constitutionality of Section 3‑A of the Andhra Pradesh Educational Institutions Act, 1983, which allowed private colleges to admit 50 % of seats at their discretion and to collect capitation fees.
The appropriate framework for admission and fee regulation of private professional colleges.

Legislation cited

All India Council for Technical Education Act, 1987s. 10, s. 23, s. 3
Andhra Pradesh Educational Institutions (Regulation of Admission and Prohibition of Capitation Fee) Act, 1983s. 3, s. 3-A, s. 5, s. 7
Constitution of Indias. 14, s. 19(1)(g), s. 21, s. 37, s. 41, s. 45, s. 46
Indian Medical Council Act, 1956s. 11, s. 13, s. 19, s. 2, s. 21, s. 27, s. 32, s. 33
Indian Medical Council (Amendment) Ordinance, 1992s. 10-A, s. 10-B, s. 10-C
Karnataka Educational Institutions (Prohibition of Capitation Fee) Act, 1984
Maharashtra Educational Institutions (Prohibition of Capitation Fee) Act, 1987
Tamil Nadu Educational Institutions (Prohibition of Capitation Fee) Act, 1992
University Grants Commission Act, 1956s. 12, s. 12A, s. 14, s. 22, s. 23

Subjects

right to educationArticle 21Article 14Article 19(1)(g)capitation feeprivate professional collegesrecognition and affiliationfundamental rightsdirective principlesSection 3-Aadmission schemefree education up to 14

Judgment

A UNNI KRISHNAN, J.P. AND ORS. Etc. irrc
v.
~
STATE OF ANDHRA PRADESH AND ORS. ETC. ETC. "
FEBRUARY 4, 1993

B (L.M. SHARMA, CJ., S. RATNAVEL PANDIAN, S. MOHAN,
B.P. JEEVAN REDDY AND S.P. BHARUCHA, JJ.)

4_-
Constitution of India, 1950:

Articles 21, 41, 45 and 46--Right to education--Whether a fundamental
c right-Held: Every child/citizen has a right to free education up to the age oj
14 years and thereafter it is subject to limits of economic capacity and
development -of the State-State obliged to follow directions contained in
Article 45-,4.rticle 21 to be construed in the light of Articles 41, 45 and 46.

D Article 21-Right to Education-Whether implicit under tlie Ar-
ticle-Whether flows from right to life and personal liberty-Extent' and con-
tent of the right.

Parts JU and IV-Fundamental Rights and Directive Principia--
Whether complementary to each other-Whether a right could be f'eCognised
E as a fundamental right even though not expressly mentioned.
---( -
Articles 14, 15, 21, 41, 45 and 46--l'rivate unaided recognised affiliated
educational insti"'tions running professional courses -lilui engineering and
medic_al courses-Whether entitled to charge a fee higher than that charged by
Government instituti~eld: Entitled to charge a higher fee but such a fee
IF cannot exceed the ceiling fixed in this reganJ--However, commerrialisation of
education riot pennissibl~apitation fee-Meaning of.
,...-- - -
Whether private aided recogniSed/affiliated educational institutions
governed by rules and regulations framed by GovP.mment in matters of
admission of students and fee chargeable as also recruitment and conditions
G
of service etc., vf teachers and staff.

Whether private recognised/affiliated institutions obliged to act fairly
consistent with Articles 14 and 15 and in accordance with conditions of grant ~
of recognition affiliation-Held: as conditions of grant of oi.d, they were
H governed by such rules and regulations-Private institutions receiving aid
594
·-
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF A.P. 595

obliged to act fairly in consonance with fundamental rights as well as regula- A
lions framed by Govemme-State, while granting recognition/affiliation
obliged to impose conditions for maintaining standards and ensunilg fairness,
inter alia, in respect of fees chargeable and admission.

Admission and chatging of capitation fees in private unaided/Oided
recognised/affiliated educational institution conducting professional courses B
sucli as medical and engineering courses--Scheme framed by Coun eliminat-
ing discretion of management in admissions in and fees payable in such
institutions and substituting merit of the students as the "Sole criterion.

Atticle 12-l'rivate institution supplementing State function viz., impal1- C
ing education--Whether an instnJmentality of State-Wheilier public duty
pelformed by i4 viz., impatting of education, would make it amenable to PaTt
Ill, such as Ame/es 14 and 15.

Attic/es 19(1)(g) and (6)-Rjght to establish and run educational in-
stitutions-Whether a fundamentOl right-lmpaTting education-Whether a D
commercial activily->'lctivity of establishing an education institution--
Whether a professiort-Words . 'Profession', 'Occupation', 'Trade' and
'Business'-Meaning of.

Attic/es 12, 14, 15, 19(1)(g), 21, 30, 41, 45 and 46--Whether private
educational institutions have a fundamental right to recognition/affilia- E
tiort-Whether such a right can be inferred by reading into Attic/e 19(1) (g) a
right in the nature of Attic/e 30.

Anicles 29 and 3<>-Rights conferred on minorities in a positive
way-Whether negate the assumption of such rights by other citizens.
F
A.P. Educational Institutions (Regulation of Admission and Prohibi-
tion of Capitation Fee) Ac4 1983:

Section 3-A-Power to grant admission to students who qualified in
entrance/qualifying examination irrespective of their ranking in the examina- G
lion and to charge any amount in addition to tuition fee-iVhether violall"ve
of Atticle 14 of the Constitution.

Kamataka Educational Institutions (Prohibition of Capitation Fee)
Ac4 .1984/Maharrµhtra Educatlbnal Institutions (Prohibition of Capitation
Fee) Ac4 1987/Tamil Nadu Educational Institutions (Prohibition of Callee- H
596 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993] 1 S.C.R.

A lion of Capitation Fee) Ac4 1992: Constitutional validity of-Held: Constitu-
tional as they do not contain provisions offend;ng Article 14 of the Constitu-
tion.

In the writ petitions filed before this Court, the correctness of the
decision of this Court in the case of Mohini Jain v. State of Kamataka and
B Others, [1992) 3 SCC p. 666 was challenged by private educational institu.
tions, engaged in or proposing to engage in imparting medical and en-
gineering education in the States of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. ~ -

C In Mohini Jain's case, this Court had held, inter alia, that every citizen
has a right to education under the Constitution; the State was under an
obligation to establish educational institutions to enable the citizens to
enjoy the said right; the State may discharge its obligation through State-
owned or State-recognised educational institutions; that .when the State
Government granted recognition to the p_rivate edu~tional institutions, it
D created an agency to fulfil its obligation under the Constitution, that
charging capitation fee in consideration of admission to educational in-
stitutions, was a patent denial or a citizen's right to education under the
Constitution and that the State action iu permitting capitation fee to be
charged by State-recognised educational institutions was wholly arbitrary
E and, as such, violative of Article 14 of the Constitution; that the capitation
fee brought to the fore a clear class bias; and that when the State Govern-
ment permitted a private medical college to be set up and recognised its
curriculum and degrees, then the said college was performing a function .
which under the Constitution had been assigned to the State Government
and if the State permitted such institution to charge higher fee from the
F students, such a fee was not tuition fee, but in fact a capitiition fee.

The aforesaid decision was followed by the Full Bench of the A.P.
High Court in Kranti Parishad v. NJ.· Reddy, (1992] 3 ALT 99 while
allowing the writ petitions filed before it challenging the permission
granted by the State Government for the establishment of private Medical
G and Dental Colleges in the State and also the constitutional validity of
section 3-A of the Andhra Pradesh Educational Institution (Prohibition of
Capitation Fee) Act, 1983. The respondents before the High Court, includ-
ing the State, filed Special Leave Petitions against the High Court's
judgment. Besides several writ petitions questioning the correctness of the
H decision of this Court in Mohini Jain's case also were filed.
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. 597

The validity of the State enactments of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and A
Maharashtra and the notifications issued thereunder on the subject of
charging of excess fee from the students was also questioned in the writ
petitions, civil appeals and Special Leave Petitions filed before this Court.

It was contended that (a) the State had no monopoly in the matter B
of imparting education; every citizen had the fundamental right to estab·
lish an educational institution as a part of the right guaranteed to him by
Article 19(1) (g) of the Constitution, which extended even to the estab-
lishment of an educational institution with a profit motive i.e., as a
bu"S°iness adventure; the said right was absolute subject, of course, to such
reasonable restrictions as may be placed upon it by a law within the C
meaning of clause (6) of Article 19; (b) the vice was not in the estab-
lishment of educational institutions by individuals and private bodies but
in unnecessary State control; the law of demand and supply must be
allowed a free play; (c) the establishment of an educational institution was
no different from any other venture e.g., starting a business or industry; D
it was immaterial whether the institution was established with or without
profit motive; only when there was profit motive that persons with means
would come forward to open more and more schools and colleges; (d) even
if it was held that a person had no right to establish an educational
iJ!stitutlon as a business venture, he had atleast the right to establish a
self-financing educational institution, which institution might also be E
described as one providing cost-based education; and thus, it was open t!l
a person to collect amounts from willing parties and establish an institu·
!ion to educate such persons or their childreu, as the case may be; the
quantum of the fees to be charged in such institution should be left to the
concerned lnsti.tution and the Government should have no say in the F
matter; it was not possible for the Court in the very nature of things, to
go into the issue; these private educational institutions were providing a
r large number of 'free seats' to the nominees of the Government, and all
these students would not have had an opportunity of studying the course
of their choice but for the existence of these private educational institu· G
!ions; (e) in these circumstances, Mohini Jain's case was not right in
saying, that charging of any amount, by whatever name it was called, over
and above, the fee charged by the Government in its own colleges, must be
described as capitation fee, and saying so amounted to imposing an
impossible condition, it was not possible for the private educational in·
stltutions to survive if they were compelled to charge only that fee as was H
598 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993) 1 S.C.R.

A charged in Governmental institntions; the cost of educating an engineer-
ing or a medical graduate was very high; all that cost was borne by the
State in Governmental Colleges; since the State was not subsidising the
private educational institutions, these institutions had to find their own
finances, and that could come only from the students; (f) even if the right
to establish an educational institution was not trade or business within
B the meaning of Article 19(1)(g), it was certainly an 'occupation' within the
meaning of the said clause; the use of the four expressions-profession,
occupation, trade or business in Article 19(1)(g) was meant to cover the
entire field of human activity; and the petitioners had the right to estab-
lish private educational institutions- at any rate, self-financing/cost-based
c private educational institutions, which would be restricted only by a law
as contemplated by clause (6) of Article 19; (g) the right to establish and
administer an educational institution (by a member of the minority com-
munity, religious or linguistic) arose by necessary implication from Article
30; the Constitution could not have intended to confine the said right only
D to minorities and deprive the majority communities therefrom; (b) the
Government or the university could insist or stipulate as a condition of
recognition/affiliation that the private educational institutions should
admit students exclusively on merit: moreover, there might be several
kinds of private educational institution.s which might 11!' established for
achieving certain specified purposes viz., to cater to the needs of a par·
E ticular region or a district, or to educate children of members or a
pai1icular community, (i) by virtue of mere recognition and/or atllllalion "· __,
these private educational institutions did not become instrumentalities or
the State within the meaning of Article U of the Constitution; the concept
of State action could not be extended to those colleges so as to subject
F them to the discipline of Part Ill; it might be a different matter if the
Institution was in receipt of any aid, partially and wholly, from the State;
In such a situation, the command of Article 29 (2) came into play, but even
that did not Gblige the institution to admit Llie students exd11sive!y on the
basis of merit • but Gnly not to deny admission to anyone fin 8!>Y cf the.
grounds m~ntioned therein, and (j) that •.\i'!ic!e 21 was lieghti>e iii char·
G acter and it merely declared that !IO person should be deprived of his life
or personal liberty except according to the procedure establish£<! by law,
and since the State was not depriving the respondents-students of their
right to education, Article 21 was not attracted.

H On behalf of the respondents and the Indian Medical Council and
1
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OFAP. 599

All India Council ror Technical Education It was contended that; (a) A
Imparting or education had always been recognised from times Im·
memorial BS the religious duty and also BS B Charitable object, and never
as a trade or business, it was a mission and not a trade, and commer·
dallsatlon or education bad always been looked upon with dis.favour; tbe
Parliament expressed its Intention by enacting in 1956 the University B
· Grants Commission Act which specified the prevention of commercialisa·
tlon ohducation as one of the duties of the University Grants Commls·
slon, which Intention bad also been expressed by several enactments made
by the Parliament aiid State Legislatures since then; (b) imparting or
education was the most Important function of the State which duty might
be discharged by State directly or through the Instrumentality of private C
educational institutions; but when State permitted ·a private body or an
Individual to perform the said function, it was Its duty to ensure that no
one got an admission or an advantage on acc•mnt of his economic power
to ibe detriment or a more m.erltorlous candidate; (c) the very concept of
collecting the cost of education • that was what the concept of cost-based D
or self.linandng educational institutions meant- was morally abhorrent
and was opposed to public policy; a capitation fee did not cease to be a
capitation fee just because it was called as cost·ha..,d education or by
calling the Institution concerned as a self-financing institution; these
expressions were but-a.,_cover for collecting capitation fee; it was nothing E
~
·1 but exploitation, an'd\ was an elitist concept basically opposed to the
constitutional philosophy; the concept suffered from class bias and by
allowing such education, two c!asses would come into being; (d) even If it
was held that a citizen or a person. bad a right to establish an educational
Institution, the said right did not carry with It the right to recognition or
the right to affiliation, as the case -y be; even a minority educati11nal F
instltuJon was held by this Court to have no fundamental right to recog·
nltlon or a!rtllatlon; hence such a ripr-could not be envisaged In the case
or majority community cir in the case or individuals or persons, and it was
open to the State or the University according recognition or affiliation to
. Impose such conditions as they think appropriate in the interest of fair· G
ness, merit, maintenance or standards of education and so on, lnduding
that the ad"Uission of students, In whichever category It might be, should
be on the basis of merit and merit alone; the Institutions obtaining
recognition/affiliation would be bound by such condition and any depar·
tore therefrom rendered the recognition/affiliation liable to be withdrawn; H
600 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993) 1 S.C.R.

A and (e) even if such a condition was not expressly imposed, it was impUcit,
by virtue of the fact that in such a situation, the activity of the private
educational institution was liable to be termed as State action; the fact
that these institutions performed an important public function coupled
with the fact that their activity was closely inter-twined with governmental
activity, characterised their action as State action; at the minimum, the
B
requirement would be to act fairly in the matter of admission of students
and probably in the matter of recruitment and treatment of its employees
as well; these institutions were further bound not to charge any fee· or
amount over and above what was charged in. similar governmental institu-
tions; and if they needed finances, they must find them through donations
C or with the help of religious or charitable organisations and they could not
also say that they would first collect capitation fees and with that money,
they would establish an institution; at the worst, only the bare running
charges could be charged from the students and the capital cost could not
be charged from them.
D
On behalf of the Government of India it was submitted that the
Central Gowrnment did not have the resources to undertake any addi-
tional financial •'esponsibility for medical or technical education; it was
unable to aid any private educational institution financially at a level
higher than at present; therefore, the policy of the Central Government
E was to involve private and voluntary efforts in the education sector in ) -
conformity with accepted norms and goals; however, the private educa-
tional institutions could not be compelled to charge only that fee as was
charged in Governmental institutions; so far as engineering colleges were
concerned, permission was being granted by the A.I.C.T.E. subject to the
F condition that they did not collect any capitation fee;

It was also submitted that (a) conferring unconditional and un·
qualified right to education at all- levels to every citizen involving a con·
stitutional obligation on the State to establish educational institutions
either directJy or through State agencies was not warrt'lnted by the Con-
G stitution besides being unrealistic and impractical; (lJ) wh•n the Govern-
ment granted recognition to private educational institutions it did not
create an agency to fulfil its obligations under the Constitution and there
was no scope to import the concept of agency in s!lch a situation; (c) the
principles laid down in Mohilli Jain's case required reconsideration; (d) it
H would be unrealistic and unwise to discourage private initiative in provid-
\.
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. 601

ing educational facilities particularly for higher education. The private A
section should be involved and indeed encouraged to augment the much
·~ needed resources in the field of education, thereby making as much
progress as possible in achieving the Constitutional goals in this respect;
(e) at the same time, regulatory controls had to be continued and
strengthened in order to prevent private educational institutions from
B
commercialising education; (I) regulatory measures should be maintained
and strengthened so as to ensure that private educational institutions
maintain minimum standards and facilities; (g) admissions within all
- :k groups and categories should be based on merit. There may be reservation
of seats in favour of the weaker sections of the society and other groups
which deserve special treatment. The norms for admission should be c
pre-determined and transparent.

The four State Governments also took a similar stand.

It was submitted on behalf of the students who had obtained admis·
slons against the Management quota of 50% seats, that they were innocent D
parties and had obtained admission in a bonaftde belief that their admis-
sioos were being made properly; they had been studying since then and in
a few months their academic year would come to a close; may be, the
managements were guilty of an irregularity, but so far as the students were
concerned they had done noihing contrary to law to deserve the punish· E
- ~

1
ment awarded by the Full Bench of the High Court.

Disposing of the Writ petitions and appeal~, this Court,

HELD : By the Court,
F
1. The citizens of this country have a fundamental right to educa-
__..,. tioo. The said right Dows from Article 21. This right is, however, not an
absolute right. Its content and para-meters have to be determined in the
light of Articles 45 and 41. In other words, every child/citizen of this
country has a right to free education until he completes the age of 14
years. Thereafter his right to education is subject to the limits of economic
G
capacity and development of the State. [6938-C]

~· 2.1. The obligations created by Articles 41, 45 and 46 of the Constitu·
tioo can be discharged by the State either by establishing institutions of
its own or by aiding, recognising and/or granting affiliation to private H
602 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.C.R.

A educational institutions. Where aid Is not granted to private edll<"\tlooal
Institutions and merely recognition or affiliation is granted it may not be
Insisted that the private education institution shall charge only that fee as
is charged for similar courses in governmental institutions. The private
educational institutions have to and are entitled to charge a higher fee, not
B exceeding-the ceiling fDCed in that behalf. The admission of students and
the charging of fee in these private educational institutions shall be
governed by the scheme evolved by this Court. [693D-E)

3. A citizen of this country may have a right to establish an educa-
tional institution but no citizen, person or institution has a right much
C less a fundamental right to affiliation or recognition, or to grant-lo-aid
from the State. The recognition and/or affiliation shall be given by the
State subject only to the conditions set out lo, and in accordance with, the
scheme laid down by this Court. No Government/University or authority
shall b.e competent to grant recognition or affiliation except in accordance
with the said scheme. The said scheme shall constitute a condition of such
D recognition or affiliation, as the case may be, in addition to such other
conditions and terms which such Government, University or other
authority may choose to impose. [693F-G)

4. Those institutions receiving aid shall, however, be subject to all
E such terms and conditions, as the aid giving authority may impose iu the
interest of general public. [693H, 694A]

S. Section 3-A of the Andhra Pradesh Educational Institutions
(Regulation of Admission and Prohibition or Capitation Fee) Act, 1983 is
violative of the equality clause enshrined in Article 14 and Is, therefore,
F void. (6948]

6. None of the provisions of the enactments of other three States yiz~
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra says that the Management of a
private educational institution can admit students, against 'payment
seats', 'irrespective of the ranking assigned to them in such test (Entrance
G Test) or examination'. Much less do they say that to such admissions, the
provision prohibiting capitation fee shall not apply. No doubt they cio not
say expressly that such admissions shall be made on the basis of merit,
but that is implicit. If the notifications or orders issued thereunder pro-
vide otherwise, either expressly or by implication, they would be equally
H bad. [690H, A-BJ
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. 603

Per Jeevan Reddy, J. (For himself and Pandian J.) Sharma, a and S.P. A
Bharucha, J. Concutring except on the question of right to education being a
·~ fundamental right.

1.1. Right to eduaition is not stated expressly as a Fundamental
Right in Part Ill of the Constitution of India. HOMVer, having regard to
the fundamental signifiaince of eduaition to the !ife of an individual and B
the nation, right to eduaition is implicit in and Rows from the right to life
gnaranteed by Article 21. That the right to eduaition has been treated as
~-;Jc one of transcendt:nlal Importance in the life of an individual has been
recognised all over the world. Without edu~tion being provided to the
citizens of this country, the objectives set forth in the Preamble to the C
Constitution ainnot be achieved. The Constitution would fail.
[644G, 652G-H, 653A-B]

Bandhua Mukti Morcha v. Union of India, (1984] 2 S.C.R. 67,
referred to.
D
Miss Mohini Jain v. State of Kamataka & Ors., [199l] 3 SCC 666,
llftlrmed.

1.2. No doubt Article 21, whiCh declares that no person shall be
deprived or his life or personal. liberty except. according to the proced11tt E
established by law, is worded in negative terms, but It is now well-settled that
Artlde 21 has both a negative and an a.ffirmative dimension. It is also well
eslabllshed that the provisions of Parts Ill 'Ind IV are supplementary and
complementary to each other and that Fundamental Rights a~ but a means
to achieve the goal indiaited in Part IV, and that the Fundamental Rights
mnst be construed in the light of the Directive principles, [64SC, 652E] F
F.xpress Newspapers v. Union of India, (1959] S.C.R. U; Hussain A1r1
Khatoon •· Home Secretary, State of Bihar, (1979] 3 S.C.R. 532; A.R.
Antulay v. R.S. Nayak, (1992] Supp. 1 S.C.R. 225; Olga Tellis v. Bombay
Mwiicipal Corpotation, (1985) Suppl. ZS.C.R. 51; Kharak Singh v. State of_
Uttar Pradesh and 0~1964) 1 S.C.R. JJ2; Vincent v. Uni~ of India, G
(1!1117) 2 S.C.R. 4QI; M.C. Mehta >. Union of India, (19118) 1 S.C.R. 279;
· Mandui Gandhi v. Union of India, 1978 SC. 597; R.C. Cooper v. Union of
Iildia, (1970) SC. 564; Bandhua Mulcti Morcha v. Union of India, (1984) 2
S.C.IL li7; D.S. Nakara v. Uni,,,, of India, (1983] SC~ l3l1; The State of
Mlldnu v. Champakam Dora/r(Jjan, (1959)° S.C.R. 995; flanif v. State of H
1
•
604 SUPREME COURT REPORTS • t993] 1 S.C.R.

A Bihar, [1959) S.C.R. 629; Keshavananda Bharati v. State of Kera/a, 1973
"'
~

;,"
Suppl. 521; U.P.S.C. Board v. Harishankar, A.l.R. 't979 S.C. 6~ and Minerva
Mills v. Union of India, A.l.R. 1980 S.C. 1789, referred to. ~

Munn v. I/linois, 1877 (94) U.S. 113/142 and Bolling v. Sharpe, 98
Lawyers Ed. 884, referred to.
B
1.3. The fact that right to education occurs in as many as three
Articles in Part IV viz., Articles 41, 45 and 46 shows the importance
attached to it by the founding fathers. Even some of the Articles in Part 4-._ -
Ill viz., Articles 29 and 30 speak of education. [653F)
c Brown v. Board of Education, 98 Lawyers Ed. 873 and Wisconsin v.
Yoder, 32 Lawyers Ed. 2d. 15, referred to.

1.4. The mere fact that the State is not taking away the right at
present does not mean that right to education is not included within the
D right to life. The content of the right is not determined by perception of
threat. The content of right to life is not to be determined on the basis of .
existence or absence of threat of deprivation. The effect of holding that
right to education is implicit in the right to life Is that the state cannot
deprive the citizen of his right to education except in accordance with the
procedure prescribed by law. Therefore, it would not be correct to say that
E Mohini Jain was wrong in so far as it declared that the right to education
Dows directly from right to life. [654E-G]

Miss Mohini Jain v. State of Kamataka and Ors., [1992) 3 SCC 666,
referred to.
F 1.5. However, the citizens of this country cannot demand that the State
provide adequate number of medical colleges, engineering colleges and other
educational institutions to satisfy all their educational needs. The right to
education which is implicit in the right to life and personal liberty guaran-
teed by Article 21 must be construed in the light of the directive principles in
G Part IV of the Constitution. There are several articles in Part IV whicb
expressly speak of right to education. [6548, 655A-B)
•
Miss Mohini Jain v. State of Kamataka and Ors., [1992) 3 SCC 666,
partly overruled.

H 1.6. Education means knowledge and knowledge ltsel(is power. Th~
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. 605

preservation or means of knowledge among the lowest ranl<s is of more A
Importance to the public than aU the property of all the rich men in the
- .....
~
-~, conntry. It Is this concern which nnderlies Article 46. [655D-E]

John Adams: Desertation on Canon and Fuedal Law, 1765; Rauschn·
Ing, The Voice of Destruction: Hilter, referred to.
B
1.7. A lrue democracy is one where education is universal, where
people understand what Is good for them and the nation and know how to
govern themselves. Articles 45, 46 and 41 are designed to achieve the said
goal among others. It is In the light of these articles that the content and
parameters of the right to education have to be determined. [655F]
c
1.8. Thus, right to education, understood in the context or Articles 4S
and 41, means: (a) every child/citizen or this country has a right to free
education until he completes the age or 14 years, and (b) after a
child/citizen completes 14 years, his right to education is circumscribed by
the limits of the economic capacity or the State and its developmenL Article D
'5 assures right to free education for all children until they complete the
ale or 14 years. Among the several articles !n Part IV, only Article 45
speaks or a time-limit; no other article does. This is very signllicanL The
State should honour the command or Article 45. It must be made a reality.
A child/citizen has a fundamental right to free education up to the age ofl4
years. [655G, 656A, 658D] E
G11nnar Myrdal,Asian Drama, refe Ted to.

1.9. This does not, however, mean that this obligation can be per·
formed only through the State schools. It can also be done by permitting,
reeognlsing and aiding voluntary non-governmental organisations, who F
are prepared to impart free education to children. This does not also mean
that unaided private schools cannot continue. They can, indeed they too,
have a role to play. They meet the demand of that segment of population
who may not wish to have their children educated in State-run schools.
They have necessarily to charge fees from the students. [658E] G
1.10. The right to education further means that a citizen has a right
to call upon the Sfate to provide educational facilities to him within the
limits oflts economic capacity and development. This does not mean trans·
ferrlng Article 41 from Part IV to Part III., No State would say that It need
not provide education to Its people even within the limits of Its economic H
606 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.C.R.

A capacity, and development It goes without saying that the limits'of
economic capacity are, ordinarily speaking, matters within the subjective
satisfaction of the State. Therefore, it is not correct to say that reading the
right to education into "'1icle 21, this Court would be enabling each and
every citizen of this country to approach the courts to compel the State to
provide him such education as he chooses. The right to free education is
B available only to children until they complete the age of 14 years. There-
after, the obligation of the State to provide education is subject to the
limits of its economic capacity and development
[660E-H, 661A) ...._ ~

C Francis C. Mullin v. Administrator, Union Territory of Delhi, [1981) 2
s.c.R. 516, referred to.
2.1. Private educational institutions are a necessity in the present
day context. It is not possible to do without them llecause the Governments
are not in a position to meet the demand • particularly iu the sector or
D medical and technical education which call for substantial outlays. While
education is one of the most Important functions of the Indian State, It has
no monopoly therein. Private educational institutions • including minority
educational Institutions • too have a role to play. Private educational
Institutions may be aided as well as on-aided. Aid given by the Government
E may be cent per cent or partial. [674D·E]

2.2. So far as aided institutions are concerned, they have to abide by
all the rules and regulations as may be framed by the Government and/or
· recognising/affiliating anthorities in the matter of recruitment of teachers
and staff, their conditions of service, syllabus, standard of teaching and so
F on. In particular, in the matter of admission of students, they have to
follow the rule of merit and merit alone • subject to any reservations made
under Article 15. They shall not be entitled to charge any fees higher than
what is charged in Governmental Institutions for similar courses. These
are and shall be understood to be the conditions of grant of aid. The reason
G is simple: public funds, when given as grant • and not as loan • carry the
public character wherever they go; public funds cannot be donated for
private purposes. The element of public character necessarily means a fair
conduct in all respects consistent with the constitutional mandate of Ar·
ticles 14 and 15. All the Governments and other authorities in charge of
granting aid to educational institutions shall expressly provide for such
H conditions (among others), if not already provided, and shall ensure com·
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP.

pllance with the same. Again aid may take se\>eral forms. For example, a A
medical college does necessarily require a hospital. The Government may
permit It to avail of the services of a Government hospital for the purpose
or the college free or charge. This would also be a form of aid and the
conditions aforesaid have to be imposed • may be with some relaxation in
the matter of fees ~hargeable • and observed. The Governments (Central
and State) and all other authorities granting aid shall impose socb condi- B
tions forthwith, if not already Imposed. These conditions sball apply. to
existing as well as proposed private educational institutions. '---
[674F-H, 675A..C]

-
2.3. So far as on-aided institutions are concerned, 1hey cannot be C
compelled to char5c the same fee as is charged in Governmental institu·
tions, for the reason that they have to meet the cost of imparting education
from their own resources • and the main source, apart from dona·
tions/cbarities, if any, can only be the fees collected from the students. It is
here that the concepts of 'self-financing educational lnstitutio11s' and cost· D
hased educational institutions come In. However, commercialisation of
education cannot and should not be permitted. The Parliament as •'ell as
State Legislatures have expressed this Intention In unmistakable terms.
Both in the light or our tradition and from the stand-point of interest of
gmeral public, commercialisation is positively harmrul; it is opposed to E
public policy. [675D·E, 6768) ./

3.1. Article 19(1)(g) of the Constitution declares that all citizens of
this country shall have the right to pradice any profession, or to carry on
any occupation, trade or husioess. No opinion Is expressed on the question
whether the right to establish an educational Institution can be said to be F
careying on any 'occupation' within the meaning or Article 19(1)(g). As-
suming that it is occupation sucb activity can in no event be a trade or
business nor can it be a profession within the meaning of Article 19 (1) (g).
Trade or business normally connotes an activity carried on with a profit
motive.!Education has never been commerce. in this country. Making It one
Is opposed to the ethos, tradition and sensibilities of this nation. The
G
argument to the contrary has an unholy ring to it. Imparting of education
has never been treated as a trade or business in this country since times
immemorial. It has been treated as a religious duty, and a charitable
activity, but never as trade or business. Education lo its true aspect is
more a mission and a vocation rather than a profession, trade or business, H
I
608 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.C.R.

A however wide may be the denotation of the two latter words. The Parlla·
ment too has manifested its intention repeatedly (by enacting the U.G.C.
-\'.
Act, l.M.C. Act and A.l.C.T.E. Act) that commercialisation of education is
not permissible and that no person shall be allowed to steal a march over a
more meritorious candidate because of his economic power. The very same
intention is expressed by the Legislatures of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
B Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu in the Preamble to their respective enact-
men ts prohibiting charging of capitation fee. [6760-H, 677A-DI

3.2. Imparting education cannot be treated as a trade or business. ~- •
Education cannot be allowed to be converted into commerce nor can the

c petitioners seek to obtain the said result by relying upon the wider meaning
of'oo:upation'. The content of the expression 'occupation' has to be ascer-
tained keeping in mind the fact that clause (g) employs all the four expres·
sions viz., profession, occupation trade and business. Their fields may
overlap, but each or them does certainly have a content of its own, distinct
from the others. A law, existing or future, ensuring against the conversion
D of imparting of education into commerce would be a valid measure within
the meaning of clause (6) of Article 19. [677F-G]

State of Bombay v. R.M.D.C., [1957) SCR 874, relied on.

The sabar kherda Education Society1 Sabar kherda v: State of
E Maharashtra, AIR 1968 Bombay 91; Andhra Kesari Education Society v. .
~
Government of A.P., AIR 1984 AP. 251 and Bapuji Educational Association
v. State, AIR 1986 Kamataka 119,disapproved.

3.3. The activity of establishing an educational institution, cannot be
called a 'profession' within the meaning of Article 19(1) (g). It is significant
F to notice the words 'to practice any profession'. Evidently, the reference Is
to such professions as may be practised by citizens i.e., individuals. [678G]
;..
N. U. C. Employees v. Industrial Tribuna~ A.l.R. 1962 S.C. 1080,
referred to.
G 3.4. Establishing educational institutions can by no stretch of Im·
aglnation be treated as 'practising any profession'. Teaching may be a
profes~ion but establishing an institution, employing teaching and non·
teaching stair, procuring the necessary infrastructnre for running a school "'I
.
or college is not 'practising profession'. It may be anything but not practis-
H log a profession. It is not necessary to go into the precise meaning and
'

UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. 609

content or the expressions profession, occupation, trade or business in the A
instant case. The main concern is only to establish that the activity or
establishing and/or running au educational institution cannot be a matter
orcommerce. [678H,679A·B]

3.5. Assuming that a person or body of persons bas a right to estab-
lish au educational institution, this right is not au absolute one. It is B
subject to such law as may be made by the State in the interest of general
public. However, the right to establish an educational institution does not
carry with it the right to recognition or the right to affiliation. [679C]

4.1. Recognition may be granted either by the Government or any C
other authority or body empowered to accord recognition. Similarly, affilia-
tion may be granted either by the University or any other academic or other
body empowereci to grant affiliation to other educational institutions. In
other words, it is open to a person to establish au educational institution,
admit students, impart education, conduct examination and award certifi·
cates to them. But be, or the educational institution, has no right to insist D
that the certificates or degrees (if they can be called as such) awarded by
such institution should be recognised by the State • muchless have they the
right to say that the students trained by the institution should be admitted
to examinations conducted by the University or by the Government or any
other authority, as the case may be. The institution has to seek such recog- E
nition or affiliation from the appropriate agency. [679F·GI

4..2. No educational institution except an University can award
degrees (Sections 22 and 23 of the U.G.C. Act). The private educational
institutions cannot award their own degrees. Even if they award any certifi-
cates or other testimonials they have no practical value inasmuch as they F
are not good for obtaining any employment under the State or for admis·
sioo into higher courses of study. No private educational institution can
survive or subsist without recognition and/or affiliation. [680F-G]

4.3. The bodies which grant recognition and/or affiliation are the
authorities of the Stl!te. In such a situation, it is obligatory· in the i!lterest G
of general public • upon the authority granting recognition or affiliation to
insist upon such conditions as are appropriate to ensure not only education
of requisite standard but also fairness and equal treatment in the matter of
admission of students. Since the recognising/affiliating authority is the
Staie, it is under an obligation to impose such conditions as part of its duty H
610 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993) 1 S.C.R.

A eltjolned upon it by Article 14 or the Coostltotloo. It cannot aUow Itself or
Its power and privilege to be used unfairly. 1be incidents attaching to the
main activity attach to supplemental activity as well. AftiUatloo/recogoitloo
Is not there for anybody to get it gratis or uocondltlooaUy. No Government,
authority or University is justified or Is entlUed to grant recognltlon/aftilla·
tlon without imposing such conditions. Doing so, would amount to abdicat-
B ing its o~ligatloos enjoined upon it by Part 111, its activity is bound to be
cbara~rised as uocoostltotlooal and illegal. [680H, 681A-C)

4.4. 'The private educational iostitotlons merely supplement the ef-
fort or the State in educating the people. It is not an independent activity. It
C

-
Is an activity supplemental to the principal activity carried on by the State.
Therefore, what applies to the main activity allJllies equally to supplemen·
tal activity. The State cannot claim immunity from the obligations arising
from Articles 14 and 15, and so, it cannot confer such immunity upon Its

D
affiliates. [680G, 681D)

5.1. Keeping in view the positive reatores or the several Central and
...
State enactments, this Court bas evolved a scheme, which every authority
granting recognition/affiliation shall impose upon the iostltotioos seeking
recognition/affiliation. The idea behind the scheme is to eliminate discre-
tion in the management altogether in the matter or admission. It is the
discretion in the matter or admission that is at the root or the several ills
E complained or and bas mainly led to the commercialisation or education.
[681E-F]

5.2. 'Capitation Fee' means charging or collecting amount beyond
what is permitted by law; all the Acts have defined this expression in this
F sense. A situation should be brought where there is no room or occasion
for the management or anyone on its behalf to demand or collect any
amount beyond what is permitted. H0wever, charging the permitted fees by
the private edu!"'lional institutions • which is bound to be higher than the
fees charged in similar governmental iostitotions by itself cannot be char·
G acterised as capitation fees. This is the policy underlying all the four
States' enactments prohibiting capitation fees. All of them recognise the
necessity of charging higher fees by private educational iostitotioos. They
seek to regulate the fees that can be charged by them -which may be called
permitted fees • and to bar them from collecting anything other than the
permitted fees, which is what 'Capitation fees' means. The attempt in uolv·
H log the scheme precisely is to give effect to the said legislative policy. It
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF A.P . 611
...
would be highly desirable if this scheme is given a statutory shape by A
incorporating it in the Rules that may be framed under these enactments.
[681F-H, 682A-B)

5.3. The scheme evolved is in the nature of guidelines which the
appropriate Governments and recognising and affiliatiag authorities
B
should impose and implement in addition to such other conditions and
stipulations as they may think appropriate as conditions for grant of per·
mission, grant of recognition or grant of affiliation, as the case may be. The
scheme for the present is confined only to 'professional colleges' run by
private educational institutions. [682CJ

5.4. Only those institutions which seek permission to establish
c
and/or recognition and/or affiliation from the appropriate authority shall
alone be ma"I bound by this scheme. This scheme is not applicable to
colleges run by Government or to University colleges. Thus, the scheme

·- . should be made a condition of permission, recognition or affiliation, as the
case may be. These conditions should necessarily be imposed, in addition D
to such other conditions as the appropriate authority may think ap-
propriate. No private educational institution shall be allowed to send its
students to appear for an examination held by any Government or other
body constituted by it or under any law or to any examination held by any
University unless the concerned institution and the relevant course of E
study is recognised by the appropriate authority and/or is affiliated to the
appropriate University, as the ease may be. [683A-C)

S.S. It shall be open to the appropriate authority and the competent
authority to issue such further instructions or directions, as they may think
appropriate, not inconsistent with this scheme, by way of elaboration and F
elucidation. This scheme shall apply to and govern the admissions to

- .. professional colleges commencing from the academic year 1993-94.
[687G-H]

6.1. Until the commencement of the current academic year, the G
Andhra Pradesh was following a somewhat different pattern in the matter
of filling the seats in private unaided engineering colleges. Though all the
available seats were being filled by the allottees of the Convenor (State) •
and the managements were not allowed to admit any student on their own •
a uniform f~ was collected from all the students. The concepts of 'free
seats' and 'payment seats' were, therefore, not relevant in such a situation. H
612 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.C.R.
•
A all 1Rl'e payment seats only. Such a system ainoot be said to be constitu·
tionally not permissible. But the idea lo devising the scb-e bas~ to
provide mOt"e opportunities. to merit<>ri~s studeo~, who may not .be able
to pay the enhanced fne prescribed by the gov~-ot for such coUeges.
The system devised would mean correspondingly .!Dore financial burden on
payment students whereas lo the system lo vogue in the State of ~dbra
B Pradesh, the financial burden is equally distributed among all ·the stu- .
dents. The theoretical foundation for the method devised by tht court Is
that a candidate/student who is stealing a mareh over his compatriot on
+ -
acconnt of his economic power should be made not only to pay for himself
but also to pay for another meritorious stildent. This is the social justifica·
C tion behind the 50% rule prescribed io the sch-e. Io the interest of
. uniformity and lo the light of the above social theory, the State of Andhra
Pradesh should adhere to the. system devised by the Court. [688B-E)

6.2. In the circumstances, it is not necessary for this Court to go Into
or answer the question whether grant of permission to establish and- the
D grant of aDlliation imposes an obligation upon an educational institution •
to act fairly io the matter of admission of the students and it requires
debate In a greater depth and any expression of opinion thereon at this
juncture Is not really warranted. [631 C, 688F)

7.1. Section 3-A of the Andhra Pradesh Educational Institutions
E (Regulation or Admission and Prohibition or Capitation Fee) Act, 1983 is,
In the nature or an exception to the other provisions of the Act. The Sec·
tion, read as a whole, leads to the following consequences: (a) it is open to
the private eductlonal institutions to charge as "1uch amount as they can
for admission. It will be a matter or bargain between the institution and the
F student seeking admission; (b) the admission can be made without refer-
, ence to inter-se merit or paying candidates. The institution will be entitled
to pick and choose the candidates among the applicants on such coo·
slderations as it may deem fit; (c) Section S, which prohibits collection of
•
capitation fee by an educational institution, is expressly made inapplicable
G to such admissions. This is not without a purpose. The purpose is to
permit the institutions to charge as much as they can in addition to the
collectioii'ofthe P"."Scribed tuition fee. [689E, G-H,690A·B]

7.2. The educational activity of the private educational institutions is
supplemental to the main effort by the State and what applies to the main
H activity applies equally to the supplemental activity as well. Since Article 14
~
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STAlE OF AP. 613

of the Constitution applies to the Sta)F institutions and compels them to A
admit students on the basis of merit and merit alone (subject, of course, to
any permissible reservations - wherein too, merit inter-se bas to be fol-
lowed) the applicability of Article 14 cannot be excluded from the sup-
plemental effort/activity. The State Legislature bad, therefore, no power to
say that a private educational institution will be entitled to admit students
of its choice, irrespective of merit or that it is entitled to charge as much as
B
it can, which means a free band for exploitation and more particularly,
commercialisation of edu""tion, which is impermissible in law. No such
+ immunity from the constitutional obligation can be claimed or conferred
by the State Legislature. On this ground alone, the Section is liable to fail.
The section falls foul of Article 14 and must accordingly fall. The offending c
portions of Section 3-A cannot be severed from the main body of the
section and, therefore, the whole section is liable to fall to the ground.
[690C-G]

. Kranti Sangram Parishad v. NJ. Reddy, (1992) 3 A.L.T. 99, affirmed .. D

7.3. Consequent on the striking down of Section 3-A, the question
which arises- is as to what should happen to the students who. were ad-
milted by the Private Engineering Colleges in this State, at their own
discretion, to the extent of the 50% of the available seats. Though the High
E
Court has invalidated these admissions they are continuing now by virtue
~
of tlie orders of stay granted by this Court. Until the previous year, the
State Government has been permitting these private engineering colleges
to collect a higher fees from all the students allotted to them. Of course, all
the available seats were tilled up by students allotted by the convenor of the
common entrance exam; no one could be admitted by these colleges on F
their own. For the current year, these colleges admitted 50% of the students
In th~lr own discretion - which necessarily means collection of capitation
•
• fees and/or arbitrary admissions for their own private reasons. At the
same time, these colleges have been collecting the same fees as was charged
last year both from the students allotted by the convenor as also from
those admitted by themselves. Thus, they have reaped a double advantage.
G
Though the admissions were made In a hurry, but the fact remains that
they have been continuing in the said course under the orders of this Court
?' over the last about four mouths. The present situation bas been brought
about bY a combination of circumstances namely the enactment of Section
3-A, the allotment of students to the extent of 50% only by the convenor and H
614 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993) 1 S.C.R.

A the failure of the Government to immediately rectify the misunderstanding
of the convenor. [691C-E, H, 692A)

7.4. In the circumstances, these students should not be sent out at
this stage. May be, the result is rather unfortunate but all the relevant
circumstances have to be weighed. At the same time, the managements of
B these private engineering colleges should not be allowed to walk away with
the double advantage referred to above. Since they have admitted students
of their own choice to the extent of 50% and also because it is not possible
to investigate or verify for what consideration those admissions were made, +.
it is appropriate that these colleges should charge only that fee from the
C 50% 'free students' as is charged for similar courses in the concerned
university engineering colleges. For the remaining years of their course
these colleges shall collect only the said fee, which for the sake of con-
venience may be called the 'government fee'. The balance of the amount
which they have already collected during this year shall be remitted into
the Government account within six weeks. Whichever college fails to comp-
D ly wi.th this direction it will stand disaffiliated on the expiry of six weeks of
this order and the recognition granted to it, ·if any, by any appropriate
authority shall also stand withdrawn. [ 692B-E]

Per L.M. Shanna, CJ. (for himself and Bh1J1Ucha, J.) Concurring
E
1.1 The question whether the right to primary education as men-
tioned in Article 45 of the Constitution or India, is a Fundamental Right
under Article 21 did not arise in Mohini Jain's case and no fmding or
observation on that question was called for. It cannot be accepted that
F since a positive fmding on that question was recorded in Mohini Jain's case
it becomes necessary to consider its correctness on merits. This Court
should follow the well established principle of not proceeding to decide any
question which is nat necessary to be dedded in !he case. Therefore, no
opinion upon the question is e.l<pressed. However, the finding given in
MOhini Jain's case on this question was not necessary in that case and is,
G therefore, not binding law. Ir it becomes necessary to decide this question
in any subsequent case then haling regard to its vast impact, inter a/ia, on
the country's financial capacity, the question may be referred to a larger
Bench for decision. [622F-G, 623D-E]

H Mohini Jain v. State of Kamataka, (1992) 3 S.C.C. 666, referred to.
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. 615

1.2. Suffice It to say that there is no Fundamental Right to Education A
-.. for a professional degree that Dows from Article 21. [623F]

Per Mohan/. (Concuirlng)

1.1. Article 21 acts as a shield apinst deprivation of life or personal
Uberty. Since personal liberty and life have come to be given expanded B
nieanlng, It would not be incorrect to hold that life which means to live with

- .,. dignity, takes within it education as well. [697E, 705C)

Addi. DisL Magistrate v. S.S. Shukla, (1976) Supp. S.C.R. 172, relied
on.
c
- 1.2. The fundamental purpose of Education is the same at all times
and In all places. It Is to transfigure the human personality Into a pattern
of perfection tbrongh a synthetic process of the development of the body,
the enrichment of the mind, the sublimation of the ·motions and the II·
-.
"' IUmlnatloa of the spirit. Education Is a preparation for a living and for life,
D
here and hereafter. In the context of a democratic form of goverment which
depends for Its sustenance upon the enlightenment of the populace, educa-
tion Is at once a soctal and poUtical necessity. Education Is enlightenment.
It Is the one that lends dlgoity to a man. [695C, E, 706GJ

University ofDelhi v. Ram Nath, (1964) 2 S.C.R. 703, relied on. E
·+.
Oliver Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, U.S. Supreme Court
Reports 98 Law. Ed. U.S. 347, referred to.

1.3. It Is not correct to say that because Article 21 is couched in a
neptlve ll!Jlllllage, positive rights to life and liberty are not conferred. The F

.. _
reason as to why Article 21 did not positively confer a fundamental right to
life or persoD11l llberty like Article 19 is that great concepts like liberty and
... life were purposefuUy left to gather meaning from experience. They relate to
die whole domain of social and economic fact. The drafters of the Constitu·
tioa knew too well that only a stagnant society remains unchanged. The
right to life and liberty inhere In every man. There is no need to provide for
G
the same In a positive manner. Therefore, if really Article 21, which Is the
heart of fundamental rights, has received expanded meaning from time to
time, there Is no justification as to why It cannot be interpreted In the light
of Article 45, wherein the State is obligated to provide education up to 14
years of age, within the prescribed time limit. [6990, 697E, G, 701 Gl H
616 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, A.I.R. 1978 597; Kharak Singh v.
State of U.P., [1964] 1 S.C.R. 332; Kesavananda Bharati v. Kera/a, [1973]
Supp. S.C.R. 1; Puthumma & Ors. v. State of Kera/a & Ors., [1978] 2 S.C.R.
537; American Constitution in Mussorie v. Holland, 252 U.S. 416; State of
M.P. v. Pramod Bhyaratiya & Ors., [1992] 2 Scale 791; Satwant Singh v.
A.P.O. New Delh~ [1967] 3 S.C.R. 525; Govinda v. State of V.P., [1975] 3
B S.C.R. 946; Sunil Batra v. Delhi Administration, [1978] 4 S.C.C. 494; Charles
Sobraj v. Supt. Central Jail, [1979] 1 S.C.R. 111; Hoskot v. State of
Maharashtra, [1979] 1 S.C.R.192; Hussainai Katoon v. State of Bihar, [1979]
3 S.C.R. 169; Prem Shankar v. Delhi Administration, [1980] 3 S.C.R. 855;
T. V. Vatheeswaran v. State of Tamil Nadu, A.I.R.1983 S.C. 361; Sheel Bhasre
C v. State of Maharashtra, [1983] 2 S.C.C. 96; A.G. of India v. Lachmadevi,
of
A.I.R. 1986 S.C. 467; Paramananda Katra v. Union India, (1989] 4 S.C.C.
286; Santistar Builder v. N.Kl. Totame, [19'111] 1 S.C.C. 520; Bandhua Mukti
Morcha v. Union of India, [1984] 3 S.C.C. )61; Olga Tellis v. Bombay
Municipal Corporation, [1985] 3 S.C.C. 545; Mohini Jain v. State of Kar-
D nataka, [1992] 3 S.C.C. 666 and State of Andhra Pradesh v. Lavu
Narendranath, [1971] 1S.C.C.607, referred to.

1.4. If life is so interprell:d as to .bring within it right to education, it
has to be interpreted in the light of diredive principles. Harmonious inter-
pretation of the fundamental rights vis· a-vis the directive principles must
E be adopted. [706H, 707Al

State of Kera/a & Anr. v. N.M. Thomas & Anr., l1976] 1 S.C.R. 906;
Pathumma & Ors. v. State of Kera/a & Ors., [1978] 2 S.C.R. 537 and Delhi
Development Horticulture Employees' Union v. Delhi Administration, Delhi
& Ors., (1992] 4 S.C.C. 99, referred to.
F
Constituent Assembly Debates, 1948-49, Vol.VI, pp. 909 and 910,
referred to. •

2.i. A time limit was prescribed under Artic;e 45. Such a tin1e limit is
found only here. If, therefore, endeavour has not iJeen made till now to
G make lhis Article reverberate \\ith life and articufate with meaning, the
Court should step ii!. The State can be obligated to ensure a right to free
education of every child npto the age of14 years. [713E]

Norma Bernstein, Human Rights and Education, Vol. 3 p.41; John
H Ziman, World of Science and the Rule of Law, 1986 Edu. p.49, referred to.
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. 617

2.2. Higher Education calls heavily on national economic resources. A
The right to it must necessarily be limited in any given country hy its
~ economic and social circumstances. The State's obligation to provide it is,
therefore, not absolute and immediate but relative and progressive. It has
to take steps to the maximum of its available resources with a view to
achieving progressively the full realization of the right of education by all
appropriate means. But, with regard to the general obligation to provide
B
education, the State is bound to provide the same, if it deliberately starved
its educational system by resources that it manifestly had, unless it could
~ show that it was allocating them to some even more pressing programme.
Therefore, by holding education as a fundamental right up to the age of 14
years this Court is not determining the priorities. On the contrary, remind· c
ing it of the solemn endeavour, it has to take, under Article 45, within a
prescribed time, which time limit has expired' long ago. [716D-F)

23. Therefore, right to free education up to the age of 14 years is a
fundamental right. SiJtce fundamental rights ~nd directive principles are
----- ~ complementary to each other, there is no reason why this fundamental D
/
right cannot be interpreted in this manner. Mohini Jain's case· had laid
down the law somewhat broadly when it stated education at all levels. This
must be confined to what is envisaged under Article 45. [719H, 7178, 7168)

San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodrigues, [1973) 411 U.S.,
referred to. E
-;,.
Mohini Jain v. State ofKarnataka, [1992) 3 s.c.c. ~. partly af·
firmed.

- California Law Review, Vol. 57 1969 p. 380, referred to.
F
3. It cannot be said that establishment of an educational institution
• would be 'business'. Nor again, could that be called trade since no trading
--- activities are carried on. Equally, it is not a profession. It is one thing to
say that teaching is a profession but, it is a totally different thing to plead
that establishment of an educational institution would a profession. It may G
perhaps fall under the category of occupation provided no recognition is
sought from the State or affiliation from the University is asked on the
... » basis that it is a fundamental right. [724G-H)

P. V.G. Raju v. Commissioner of Expenditure, l.T.R. Vol. 86 p.267; P.K.
Menon v. Income-tax Commissioner, [1959] Supp. 1 S.C.R. 133; Hindustan H
618 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A Steel Umited v. State of Orissa, [1970) 1 S.C.R. 753 and Barendra Prasad
Ray v. The Income-tax Officer, A.l.R. i.981 S.C.1047, referred to.

Water Supply and Sewerage Board v. R Rajappa [1978) 3 S.C.R. 207
and Miss Sundarambai v. Government of Goa, [1988) Suppl. 1 S.C.R. 604,
distinguished. ·
B
P. Ramanatha Alyar, Law Lexicon Reprin~ Edn. 1987 p.897; Black,
Law Dictionary, Fifth Edn. p.973 and Ramuath Iyer, Law Lexicon, Edn.
1987, referred to.

C 4.1. Educational institutions can he classified under two categories :
(1) those requiring recognltiou by the State and, (2) those who do not
require such a recognition. [725F)

4.2. There is absolutely no fundamental right to recongnltion in any
citizen. The right to establishment and run the educational Institution with
D State's recognition arises only on the State permitting, pursuant to a policy ;.. -
decision or on the fulfilment of th~ conditions of the Statute. Therefore,
where it Is dependent on the permission under the Statute or the exercise or
an executive power, It cannot qualify to he a fundamental right. Then again,
the State ,POiicy may dictate a different course. [72SG-H, 726A]
E
4.3. The logical corollary or holding that a fundamental right to
establish an educational institution is available under Article 19(l)(g)
would lead to the proposition, right to establish a university also. [726B)

F to.
S. Azeez hasha & Anr. v. Union of India, [1968) l S.C.R. 833, referred -
4.4. If there Is no fundamental right to establish a university a
fortiori a fundamental right to establish an educational institution Is not
available. By implication also, a fundamental riglit of the. nature and
character conferred under Article 30 cannot he read into Article 19(l)(g).
G The conferment or snch a 'right on the minorities in a positive way under
Article 30 negatives the assumption of a fundamental right in this behalf
in every citizen of the country. [727A·B]

Ahmedabad St. Xaviers College Society v. State of Gujarat, [1975) 1
H S.C.R. 173, referred to.
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. 619

4.5. Every activity or occupation by the mere fact of Its not bei8I A
obnoxious or harmful to society, cannot by itself be entitled to· protection
as fundamental right. Some rights, by the very nature, cannot be qnaJlfled
to be protected as fundamental rights. [729BJ

4.6. Accordingly, there is no fundamental right under Article
19(1)(g) to establish an educational institution, if recognition or aftllla· B
lion is sought for such an educational institution. However, anyone
desirous of starting an institution purely for the purposes of education the
-· students could do so, but Seclious 22 and 23 of the University Grants
Commission Act which prohibits the award of degrees except by a Univer-
sity must be kept in mind. {729C-DJ C
5. It is not possible to hold that a private educational institution
either by recognition or aftillation to the university could ever be called an
Instrumentality or State. Recognition is for the purposes of conforming to
the standards ·laid down by the State. Affiliation Is with regard to the
syllabi and the course of study. Unless and until they are ·in accordance D
with the prescription of the university, degrees would not be conferred.
The educational institutions prepare the students for the examination
conducted by the university. Therefore, they are obliged to follow the
syllabi and the course of the study. (7328-C]
E
Ajay Basia v. Khal~d Mujib Sehravard~ (19811 2 S.C.R. 79; Telcraj
Vasandi v. Union oflndia, (1988] 1 S.C.C. 236 and All India Sainik Schools
Employees' Assn. v. Sainik Schools Society, (1989] Supp. 1 S.C.C. 205,
relied on.

6.1. These private Institutions discharge a public duty. If a student F
desires to acquire a degree, for example, in medicine, he will have to route
through a medical college. These medical colleges are the instruments to
attain the quallftcation. Therefore, since what Is discharged by the educa·
tlonal institution is a public duty, that requires it to act fairly. In snch a
case, it will be subject to Article 14. (73201 .G

6.2. These educatim1al institutions discharge public duties. Irrespec-
tive of the educational institutions receiviug aid, it is a public daty. The
absence of aid does not detract from the nature of duty. (737C]

Andi Mukta Sadguru Shree Muktajee Vandas Swami Suvama Jayanti H
620 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S..'.:.R.

A Mahotsav Samarak TTUSt v. V.R. Rullan~ [1989) 2 S.C.C. 691 and R. V.
'
Panel on Take-Overs, 1987 1 All England Reports 564, relied on.
~·
7.1. As on today, it would be unrealistic and unwise to discourage
private initiative in providing educational facilities, particularly for higher
education. ne private s.,..tor should be involved and indeed encouraged
B to augment the much needed resources in the field of education, thereby
making as much progress as possible in achieving the constitutional gools
in this respect. Private colleges are the felt necessities of time. nat does
not mean one should tolerate the so-called colleges run in thatched buts -<
with hardly· any equipment, with no or improvised laboratories, scarce
c facility to learn in an unhealthy atmosphere, for from conducive to educa-
lion. Such of them must be put down ruthlessly with an iron band ir-
respective of who has started the institution or who desires to set up such
an institution. They are poisonous weeds in the field of education. Those
-
who venture are financial adventurers without morals or scruples. Their
only aim is to make money, driving a hard bargain, exploiting eagerness
D to acquire a professional degree which would be a passport for· employ- '-
ment in a country rampant with unemployment. They could be even called
pirates in the bigb seas of education. [742A-D)

7.2. However, not all the private institutions belong to this category.
E There are institu~ons which have attained great reputation by devotion
and by nurturing bigb educational standards. They surpass the colleges
run by the Government in many respects. They require encouragement.
From this point of view regulatory controls have to be continued and
strengthened. De commercialisation of education, the racketeering must
be prevented. The State should strive its utmost in this direction. [743C]
F
7.3. Regulatory measures must so ensure that private educational
institutions maintain minimum standards and facilities. Admission within _,._
all groups and categories should be based only on merit. There may be
reservation of seats in favour of the weaker sections of the society and
G other groups which deserve speeial treatment. The norms for admission
should be pre-determined, objective and transparent. [743D-E]

7.4. Proliteerln_g is an evil. Ir a public utility like electricity could be
controlled, certainly, the professional colleges also require to be regulated.
H [7~A)
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. 621

Kera/a State Electricity Board v. S.N.. Govinda Prabllu, [1986) 3 A
S.C.R.; Suman Gupta and Ors. v. State of J & Kand Ors., [1983) 3 S.C.R.
985; Oil and Natural Gas Commission and Anr. v. Association of Natural
Gas Consuming Industries of Gujarat and Ors., (1990) Supp. S.C.C. 397 and
Hindustan Zinc Ltd. v. A.P.S.E.B., [1991) 3 S.C.C. 299, referred to.

8. It is not correct to say that education must be available free and B
it must be run un a charitable basis. The time is not yet riire to l10Id that
education must b: made available on a charitable basis, though whenever
trusts are made for advancement of education it was held to be a
charitable purpose. [746C, 747H, 748AJ

St. Stephen's College v. University of Delhi, [1992) 1 S.C.C. 558;
c
Special Commissi01iers of Income-tax v. Pemsel, 3 Tax Cases 53; 17ie King
v. 11ie Commissioner for Special Purposes of the Income-tax, 5 Tax Cases
408 and 77ie Abbey Malvern Vie/ls Ltd. v. Minister of Town and Country

...
-
Planning, 1951 (2) All England Law Reports 154, refer;red to.

P.R. Ganapathy Iyer: 77ie Law relating to Hindu and Mahomedan
D
·Endowments, Chap. Ill p.46 & 49; B.K. Mukherje : 17ie Hindu Law of
Religious and Charitable Trust, p.58 para 2.7A, referred to.

CIVIL ORIGINAL JURISDICTION : Writ Petition (C) No.607 of
~. E

Under Article 32 of the Constitution of India.

-
WITH

W.P.(C) Nos. 657, 602 & 678/92, SLP(C)No. 11852/92, W.P.(C) F
No.701, 770 & 729/92 SLP(C) No. 13263, 12830 & 13913/92 with I.A. Nos.
2-5, 13914 and 12845-58/92, W.P. (C) No. 785 & 836/92, SLP(C)No.
_._ 13940/92, W.P.(C) No. 779192, 2337-2338/83, CA. No. 3573/92, W.P.(C)
No.870192, 855/92 & SLP(C) No.15039 of 1992.

Milon Kumar Banerjee, Attorney General, Dipankar Prasad Gupta, G
Solicitor General, V.R. Reddy, Additional Solicitor General, K.K.
Venugopal, Santosh Hegde, K. Parasarn, Shanti Bhushan, Kapil Sibal,
R.K.Jain, Ms. Indira Jaising, C.S. ·vaidyanathan, D.D.Thakur,
V.M.Tarkunde, Har Dev Singh, Sushil Kumar, Rana Jois, S.S. Javeli, S.K.
Dholakia, Ashok Desai, C. Sitararnaiah,Harish N. Salve, Madhunaik Nair, H
622 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993) 1 S.C.R.

A Suchinto Chatterji, P.P. Tripathi, K. V. Mohan, Ejaz Maqbool, Vijai Kumar,
V. Balachandran, S.R. Bhat, A.V. Rangam, A. Ranganadhan,··w.c.
.:J
Chopra, Satish Parasaran, Jayant Bhushan, A. Subha Rao, Ms. Bharati
Reddy, Ms. Pramila, T.V.S. Narasimhachari, Naresh Kaushik, Navin Batra,
B. Veerabhadrappa, Shankar Divate, Mrs. Lalitha Kaushik, S.C. Pate~
Mohan V. Katarki, Shambhu Prasad Singh, Rajeshwar Thakur, Ms. Rani
B Jethmalani, K V.. Viswanathan, Madho Naik, K. V. Venkataraman, K. Ram
Kumar, Vivek Gambhir, S.K. Gambhir, B.E. Avadh, M.D. Adkar, C.B.
Babu, Smt. Ayajai, C.V. Sobba Rao, A.Mariarputham, Mrs. Arona Mathur, ~
4
Dr. Suman! Bhardwaj, Anuputham, Arona & Co., Ms. Madho Moolchan-
dani, S.A. Sequeira, G.K. Shevgoor, R.P. Wadhwani, Dr. J.P. Verghese,
c M.P. Raju, LJ. Vadakara, P.R. Ramasesh, Anip Sachthey, S.S. Khanduja,
Yashpal Dhingra, B.K. Satija, A.M. Majumdar, Sanjay Parikh, A.K. Panda,
Karanja Wala, Ajay Malviya, Ranjan Mukherjee, R.K. Mehta, J.R. Das,
D.K. Sinha, Mrs. Bharati Sharma, Mrs. Rani Chhabra, Dr. Suman!
Bhardwaj, R.S. Hegde, K.R. Nagaraja, Sunil Dogra, Smiriti Misra, Ms.
D
Madhavan, P.H. Parekh, A.S. Bhasme, Vimal Dave and B. Rajeshwar Rao ...
for the appearing parties.

The Judgments of the Court were delivered by

SHARMA, CJ. We have had the benefit of going through the two
judgments of our learned Brothers B.P Jeevan Reddy and S. Mohan, JJ.
E
We are in agreement with the judgment of Brother B.P. Jeevan Reddy, J. ~·
except to the extent indicated below.

2. The question which arose in the case of Miss Mohini Jain v. State
of Kamataka, (1992) 3 sec 666, as also in the present cases before us, is
F whether a citizen has a Fundamental Right to education for a medical,
--
engineering or other professional degree. The question whether the right
to primary education, as mentioned in Article 45 of the Constitution of
India, is a Fundamental Right under Article 21 did not arise in Mohini •
Jain's case and no finding or observation on that question was called for.
It was contended before us that since a positive finding on that question
G
was recorded in Mohini Jain's case it becomes necessary to consider its
correctness on merits. We do not think so.

3. Learned arguments were addressed in support of and against the . 6,
aforesaid view which have been noticed in the judgments of our learned
H Brothers. It was contended by learned counsel appearing for some of the
UNNJ KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 623

parties before us that Article 37 in Part IV of the Consititution expressly A
states that the provisions contained in Part IV shall not be enfOlceable by
any court and that, therefore, assuming the right under Article 45 to be
included within the ambit of Article 21, it would still not be enforceable.
Emphasis w..S also laid upon the language used in Article 45 which requires
the State to 'endeavour to provide' for the free and compulsory education B
of children. A comparison of the language of Article 45 with that of Article
49 was made and it was suggested that whereas in Article 49 an 'obligation'
was placed upon the State, what was required by Article 45 was "en-
deavour" by the State. We are of the view that these arguments as also the
arguments of counsel oil the other side and the observations in the
decisions relied upon by them would need a thorough consideration, if C
necessary by a larger Bench, in a case where the question squarely arises.

4. Having given our anxious consideration to the arguments in favour
of and against the question aforementioned, we are of the view that we
should follow the well established principle of not proceecfu:g to ·decide D
any question which is not necessary to be decided in che case. We,
therefore, do not express any opinion upo.n this question except to hold
that the finding given in Mohini Jain's case on this question was not
necessary in that case and is, therefore, not binding law. We are of the \iew
that if it becomes necessary to decid~ : his question in any subsequent case
then, for the reasons set out above and having regard to its vast impact, E
... inter alia on !he country's financial capacity, the question may be referred
to a larger Bench for decision.

5. For the purposes of these cases, it is enough to state that there is
no Fundamental Right to education for a professional degree that flows F
from Article 21.

.... B.P. JEEVAN REDDY, J. In these writ petitions, filed by private
educational institutions - engaged in or proposing to engage in imparting
medical and engineering education - the correctness of the decision
rendered by a Division Bench comprising Kulclip Singh and R.M. Sahai, G
JJ. in Miss Mohini Jain v. State of Kamataka and Ors., is called in question.
The petitioners, running 111edicaVengineering · c;:olleges in the States of
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, say that if
Mohini Jain is correct and is followed and implemented by the respective
State Governments - as indeed they are bound to - they will have to close H
624 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A down; no other option is left to them. It is, therefore, necessary in the first
instance to ascertain what precisely does the said decision lay down.
'
2. The Karnataka Legislature enacted, in the Year 1984, the Kar- ,.i.
nataka Educational Institutions (Prohibition of Capitation fee) Act. The
preamble to the Act recites:
B
'An Act to prohibit the collection of capitation fee for
admission to educational institutions in the State of Kar-
nataka and matters relating thereto;

C Whereas the practice of collecting capitation fee for ad-
mitting stµdents into educational institutions is widespread
in the State;

And whereas tins undesirable practice beside contributing
to large scale commercialisation of education has not been
D conducive to the maintenance of educational standards;
...
('

And whereas it is considered necessary to effectively curb
this evil practice in public interest by providing for prohibi-
tion of collection oi capitation fee and matters relating
E thereto;

Be it enacted by the Karnataka State Legislature in the ,._ -
Thirty-Fourth Year of the Republic oflndia as follows'

Clause (b) of Section 2 defines the expression 'Capitation fee' in the
F following words:

'2(b). 'Capitation fee' means any amount, by whatever
name called, paid or collected directly or indirectly in
excess of the fee prescribed under section 5, but does not
include the deposit specified under the proviso to
G section 3.'

Section 3 prohibits collection of capitation fees by any educational
institution or anyone connected with its management, notwithstanding any
other law for the time being ill force. The Section along with its proviso
H reads thus:
-{

UNNJ KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.) 625

'3. Collection of capitation fee prohibited. - Notwithstand- A
ing anything contained in any Jaw for the time being in
force, no capitation fee shall be collected by or on behalf
of any educational institution or by any person who is
incharge of or is respoDsible for the management of such
institution:
B
Provided....................... '

Section 5, which is the other provision referred to in the aforesaid
definition reads as follows:

'5. Regulation of fees etc. - (1) It shall be competent for c
the Government, by notification, to regulate the tuition fee
or any other fee or deposit or other amount that may be
received or collected by any educational institution or class
of such institutions in respect of any of all class or classes
of students. D
(2) No educational institution shall collect any fees or
amount or accept deposits in excess of the amounts notified
under sub-section ( 1) or permitted under the proviso to
section 3.
E
(3) Every educational institution shall issue an official
receipt for the fee or capitation fee or deposits or other
amount collected by it.

(4) All monies received by any ~ducational institution by
way of fee or capitation fee or deposits or other amount F
shall be deposited in the account of the institution, in any
Scheduled Bank and shall be applied and expended for the
. improvement of the institution and the development of the
educational facilities and for such other related purpose
and to such extent and in such manner as may be specified
G
by order by the Government.
;,.
I (5) In order to carry out the purposes of sub-section (4),
the Government may require any education institution to
submit their programmes or plans of improvement and
development of the institution for the approval of the H
626 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A Government. n

3. Section 4 provides for regulation of admission in the educational
institutions in the State. According to sub-section {1), the maximum num-
ber of students for admission that can be admitted to a course of study and
the minimum qualifications shall be fixed by the Government. However, in
B the case of a course of study in an institution maintained by or affiliated
to the Univecsity, the minimum qualifications shall be fixed by the Univer-
sity and not by the Government. Sub-sections {2) and {3) of Section 4
pertain to "regulation of capitation fee during the period specified under
the proviso to Section 3. In view of their importance, these sub-sections
c may be set out in full :

"{2) in order to regulate the capitation fee charged or
collected during the period specified under the proviso to
section 3, the Government may, from time to time, by
general or special order, specify in respect of each private
D educational institution or class or classes of such institu-
tions.

(a) the number of seats set apart as Government seats:

{b) the number of seats that may be filled up by the
E management of such institution.

(i) from among Karnataka students on the basis of merit,
on payment of such cash deposits refundable after such
number of years, with or without interest as may be
specified therein, but without the payment of capitation
F
fee; or

(ii) at the discretion :

Provided that such number of seats as may he specifed by
the Government but not less than fifty per cent of the total
G
number of seats referred to in the clauses (a) and (b) shall

H
be filJed fron1 among Karnataka students.

Explanation. - For the purpose of this section Kamataka
students means persons who have studied in such educa-
tional institutions in the State of Karnataka run or recog-
-
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 627

nised by the Government and for such number of years as A
the Government may specify;

(3) an educational institution required to fill seats in ac-
cordance with item (i) of sub-clause (b) of clause (2) shall
form a committee to select candidates for such seats. A
nominee each of the Government and the University to B
which such educational institution is affiliated shall be
included as members of such committee."
·i-
These two sub-sections, in short, say: (i) it shall be open to the
Government to specify the number of seats that may be set apart as C
11
Government seats11 in any private educational institution or in a class or
classes of such institutions; (ii) The Government can also specify that out
of the seats to be filled by the Management (Management quota), a
particular number of seats may be filled from among Karnataka students,
on the basis of merit on payment of such refundable deposit as may be
prescribed; The government can also specify the number of seats that may D
be filled at the discretion of the management. (It is obvious that if the seats
to be filled on the basis of merit/refundable deposit are not specified, all
the seats other than "Government seats" can be filled at the discretion of
the management;) (iii) the number of 'Karnataka students' (which expres-
sion is defined by the explanation) should not be less than 50% over-all; E
(iv) in case, the number of seats to be filled on merit-cum-refundable
deposit are specified, a selection committee, as contemplated by sub-sec-
tion (3) has to be formed for making the selection. The expression "Gover-
nement seats" is defined in clause (e) of Section 2 in following words:
11
(e) 11 Government Seatsn means such number of seats in F
such educational institution or class or classes of such
institutions in the state as the Government may, from time
to time, specify for being filled up by it in such manner as
may be specified by it by general or special order on the
basis of merit and reservation for Scheduied Castes,
G
Scheduled Tribes, Backward Classes and such other
categories, as may be specified, by the Government from
time to time, without the requirement of payment of capita-
,;. tion fee or cash deposit."

4. In exercise of the power conferred by section 5 of the Act, the H
}

628 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.C.R.

A Goverment of Kamataka issued a notification on June 5, 1989. It provided
that from the academic year 1989-90, the fees payable in private medical -~
colleges shall be Rs.2,000 p.a. in case of students admitted against "Govern-
ment Seats" (the same as in the Government Medical Colleges), Rs.25,000
in the case of other Karnataka students and Rs.60,000 in the case of
non-Karnataka students.
B
5. Miss Mohini Jain, a non-Karnataka student (she was from Meerut
in Uttar Pradesh) applied for admission in M.B.B.S. course in one of the
private medical colleges in Karnataka. She was informed by the college that
if she pays Rs. 60,000 towards the first year's tuition fee and furnishes a
C bank guarantee for the fees payable for the remaining years of the M.B.B.S.
course, she will be admitted. Her parents were not in a position to pay the
same and hence she could not be admitted. Her further case, which was
denied by the Management of the college, was that she was asked to pay
a capitation fee of Rs.4,50,000 as a condition of admission. She approached
D this court under Article 32 challenging the aforesaid notification of the
Karnataka Government and asking for a direction to be admitted on
payment of the same fee as was payable by the Karnataka students ad-
mitted against the. "Goverriment Seats".

6. The Bench which heard and disposed of the writ petition framed
E four questions as arising for its consideration viz., (i) Is there a 'right to
education' guaranteed to the people of India under the Constitution ? If
so, does the concept of 'capitation fee' infract the same ? (ii) Whether the
charging of capitation fee in consideration of admission to educational
institutions is arbitrary, unfair, unjust and as such violates the equality
clause contained in Article 14 of the Constitution ? '(iii) Whether the
F
impugned notification permits the Private Medical Colleges to charge
capitation fee in the guise of regulating fees under the Act ? and (iv) .
Whether the notification is violative of the provisions of the Act which in
specific terms prohibits the charging of capitation fee by any educational
institution in the State of Karnataka ?
G
7. On the brst question, the Bench held, on a consideration of
Articles 21, 38, 39(a) and (f), 41 and 45 of the Constitution:

(a) "the framers of the Constitution made it obligatory for the State
H to provide education for its citizens11 ;
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STAIB OF AP. [REDDY, J.) 629

(b) the objectives set forth in the preamble to the Constitution cannot A
be achieved unless education is provided to the citizens of this country;

(c) the preamble also assures dignity of the individual. Without
education, dignity of the individual cannot be assured;

(d) Parts III and IV of the Constitution are supplementary to each B
other. Unless the 'right to education' mentioned in Article 41 is made a
reality, the fundamental rights in Part III will remain beyond the reach of
J- the illiterate majority;

(e) Article 21 has been interpreted by this Court to include the right
to live with human dignity and all that goes along with it. "The 'right to
c
education' flows directly from right to life." In other words, 'right to
education' is concomitant to the fundamental right enshrined in Part III of
the Constitution. The State is under a constitutional mandate to provide
educational in5titutions at all levels for the benefit of citizens." The benefit
- J,
of education cannot be confined to .ioher classes. D

(f) Capitation fee is nothing but a consideration for admission. The
concept of "teaching shops" is alien to our Constitutional scheme. Educa-
tion in India has never been a commodity for sale.

(g) "We bold that every citizen has a 'right to education' under the E
Constitution. The State is under an obligation to establish educational
institutions to enable the citizens to enjoy the said right. The State may
discharge its obligation through state-owned or state-recognised education-
al institutions. When the State Government grants recognition to the
private educational institutions it creates an agency to fulfil its obligation F
under the Constitution. The students are given admission to the education-
al institutions - whether state-owned or state-recognised - in recognition of
their 'right to education' under the Constitution. Charging capitation fee
in consideration of admission to educational institutions, is a patent denial
of a citizen's right to education under the Constitution."
G
8. On the second question, the Bench held that "the State action in
permitting capitation fee to be charged by state-recognised educational
! institutions is wholly arbitrary and as such .violative of Article 14 of the
Constitution of India ........... The Capitation fee brings to the fore a clear
class bias." Admission of non-meritorious students by charging capitation H
630 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993] 1 S.C.R.

A fees - in any form whatsoever - strikes at the very root of the constitutional
scheme and our educational system. D.P. Joshi does not come to the rescue
of the private institutions.

9. On the third question, the Bench held that having regard to the
scheme of the Act, chargii.ig of Rs. 60,000 for admission is "nothing but a
B capitation fee". The private medical colleges have further been given a free
hand in the matter of admission of non-Karnataka students irrespective of
merit. It held further : "if the State Government fixes Rs. 2000 per annum
as the tuition fee in government colleges and for "Government Seats" in -\
private medical colleges then it is the stat~-responsibility to see that any
C private college which has been set up with Government permission and is
being run with Government recognition is prohibited from charging more
than Rs. 2000 from any student who may be resident of any part of India.
When the State Government permits a private medical college to be set-up
and recognises its curriculum and degrees then the said college is perform-
ing a function which under the Constitution has been assigned to the State
D Government. We are therefore of the view that Rs. 60,000 pe.r annum
permitted to be charged from Indian students from outside Karnataka in
Para 1 (d) of the notification is not tuition fee but iu fact a capitation fee
and as such cannot be sustained and is liable to be struck down."

E 10. The notification impugned was accordingly held to be outside the
scope of the Act and bad. (It was declared that the judgment shall not be
applicable to foreign students and N.R.ls.). The Writ petition was allowed
accordingly but Mohini Jain was denied admission since "she was not
admitted to the college ::m merit and secondly the course commenced in
March-April, 1991." (The decision was rendered on 30.7.1992). It was
F directed that the said decision shall have only prospective operation and
shall not affect the admissions already made in accordance with the said
notification.

It i~ the above proposit~ons that have provoked this batch of \1tTit
G petitions.

11. Mohini Jain was followed by a Full Bench of the Andhra Pradesh
Hig.li Court in Kranti Sangram Par.shad v. N.J. Reddy, (1992) 3 A.LT. 99.
the Respondents in those "Tit petitions including the State of Andhrn
Pradesh have filed a number of S.L.Ps. seeking leave lo appeal against the
H said judgment. In the said S.LPs., certain issues peculiar to those matters
{
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. (REDDY, J.] 631

arise, which we are not dealing with herein. This decision is concerned A
mainly with the correctness of Mohini Jain and the following three ques·
lions, which were framed by us at the hearing. The three questions are:

( 1) Whether the Constitution of India guarantees a fundamental right
to education to its citizens ?
B
(2) Whether a citizen of India has the fundamental right to establish
and run an educational institution under Article 19(1)(g) or any other
j provision in the Constitution ?

(3) Whether the grant of permission to establish and the grant of C
affiliation by a University imposes an obligation upon an educational
institution to ;ct fairly in the matter of admission of the students ?

Before we deal with the above questions, it would be appropriate to
notice the legal and relevant factual position obtaining in three others
States, namely Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. All the D
matters before us arise from these four States only. Notice in these matters
were however directed to all the States in the country. None has appeared
excepting the above four States.

ANDHRA PRADESH
E
12. The Andhra Pradesh Education Act, 1982 was enacted by the
State Legislature with a view to consolidate and •mend the laws relating
to the educational system in the State of Andhra Pradesh, for reforming,
organising and developing the said educational system and to provide for
matters connected therewith or incidental therewith. By virtue of sub-sec- F
tion (3) of Section 1, it applies to all educational institutions and tutorial
institutions in the State except those governed by the University Acts or
the A.P. Intermediate Education Act, 1971. Section 2 defines certain
expressions occurring in the Act. Clause (11) defines the expression
'college' to include a medical college established or maintained and ad-
ministered by or afftliated to or associated with or recognised by any G
University in the State. Clause (18) defines 'educational institution' to mean
recognised schools and colkges including Medical Colleges. Chapter-VI
(Sections 18 to 33) deals with establishment of educational institutions,
their administration and control. Section 18 says that Government may, for
the purpose of implementing the provisions of the Act, provide adequate H
)

632 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993] 1 S.C.R.

A facilities for imparting education either by establishing and maintaining
educational institutions by itself or by permitting any local authority or
private body of persons to establish and maintain educational institutions.
Section 19 classifies the educational institutions into (a) State institutions
(b) local authority institutions and (c) private institutions. Section 20 deals
with grant of permission for establishment of educational institutions. It
B
says that the competent authority (as defined in Clause (12) of Section 2)
shall from time to time conduct a survey to identify the educational needs
of the locality under its jurisdiction and notify in the prescribed manner
through the local newspapers calling for applications from the educational
agencies desirous of establishing educational institutions. In pursuance of
C such notification, applications may be filed either by existing institutions or
new institutions as also by local authorities for establishment of new
institutions or for expansion of the existing ones. Sub-section (3) prescribes
the requirements which have to be satisfied by an applicant, the matters
with respect to which the competent authority has to be satisfied before
D grant of permission and the steps that have to be taken by the person (to
whom the permission is grai.ted) within the specified period. According to
the sub-section, an application has to be accompanie.d by (1) title deeds
relating to the site for building, play-grounds and garden proposed to be
provided. (2) Plans approved by the local authorities concerned which shall
E conform to the rules prescribed therefor and (3) documents evidencing
availability of the financing needed for constructing the proposed buildings.
The Authority must be satisfied before granting the permission that there
is a need for providing educational facilities to the people in the locality,
that there is adequate financial provision for continued and efficient main-
tenance of the institution as prescribed by the competent authority and
F evidence that the institution is proposed to be located in sanitary and
healthy surroundings. The local authority or the body of persons to whom
the permission is granted has to appoint the teaching staff qualified accord-
ing to the rules made by the Government in this behalf and satisfy other
requirements laid down by the Act, rules and the orders made thereunder,
G within the perio-1 specified by the authorities. In default of such com-
pliance, it shall be competent to the Authority to cancel the permission.
Sub-section (4) makes it punishable for anyone to establish an educational
institution otherwise than in accordance with the provisions of the Act
Anyone running an institution after cancellation of the permission is also
H punishable.
{
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, I.] 633

13. Section 20-A declares that on and from the commencement of A
the A.P. Education (Amendment) Act, 1987, no individual shall establish
a private institution. The institutions already established by individuals
however are not affected by the said provision. Section 21 deals with grant
and withdrawal of recognition of institution. It provides that the competent
authority may by order in writing grant recognition to an educational
B
institution permitted to be established under Section 20 subject to such
conditions as may be prescribed in regard to the accommodation, equip-
ment, appointment of teaching staff and so on. It further provides that if
any local authority or other private educational institution fails to fulfil all
or any of the conditions of recognition or commits any of the other
irregularities mentioned in sub-section (2), its recognition may be C
withdrawn. It is not necessary to notice to other provisions in the Act.

14. In the year 1983, the Legislature of Andhra Pradesh enacted the
Andhra Pradesh Educational Institutions (Regulation of Admission and
Prohibition of Capitation Fee) Act, 1983. The Act was made to provide for D
regulation of admission into educational institutions and to prohibit the
collection of capitation fee in the State of Andhra Pradesh. It would be
appropriate to notice the preamble to the Act. It reads:

'Whereas the undesirable practice of collecting capitation
fee at the time of admitting students into educational E
institutions is on the increase in the State;

And whereas, the said practice has been contributing to
large scale commercialisation of Education;

And whereas, it is considered necessacy, to effectively curb F
this evil practice in order to avoid frustration among the
meritorious and indigent students and to maintain excel-
lence in the students of education; ·
_..o..

Be it enacted by the Legislature of the State of Andhra
Pradesh in the Thirty-fourth year of the Republic of India
G
as follows:'

15. The Act was brought into force on and with effect from 30th
January, 1983. Section 2 contains the interpretation Clause. Cl~use (b)
defines the expression 'capitation fee' to mean any amount collected in H
634 SUPREME CO~RT REPORTS [1993] 1 S.C.R.

A. excess of the fee prescribed under section 7. Section 3 provides that
admission into educational institutions in the State shall be made on the
basis of the marks obtained in the qualifying examination or on the basis
of the ranking assigned in the entrance test conducted by such authority
and in such manner as may be prescribed. So far as Medical and Engineer-
ing colleges are concerned, it is provided that admission thereto shall be
B made exclusively on the basis of the ranking assigned in the entrance test.
The State has also reserved to itself the power to specify seats for
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Backward classes. Section 4
provides that even a minority educational institutions shall have to admit
students on the basis of merit while admitting the students belonging to
C that minority or other students. Section 5 prohibits the capitation fee. It
says "the collection of any capitation fee by any educational institution or
by any person who is incharge of or is responsible for the management of
the institution is hereby prohibited." Section 6 says that any donations made
to educational institution shall be made only in the prescribed manner and
D not otherwise, and that the money so received shall be deposited and
applied in the prescribed manner.

Section-7 regulates the fee that can be charged by an educational
institution. It would be appropriate to read the section here in its entirety:

E 7. (1) "It shall be competent for the Government by notifica-
tion, to regulate the tuition fee or any other fee ·that may
be le\ied and collected by any educational institution in
respect of each class of students.

(2) No educational institution shall collect any fees in
F excess of the fee notified under sub-section (1).

(3) Every educational institution shall issue an official
receipt for the fee collected by it."

G Section 9 provides for penalties in case of contravention of the
provisions of the Act. The punishment prescribed is not less than three
years and not exceeding seven years, in addition to fine. Section 15 confers
upon the Government the power to make rules to carry out the purposes
of the enactment.

H 16: The 1983 Act was amended in the year 1992 by inserting Section
~
'

UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 635

3-A, which section reads as follows: A

"Notwithstanding anything contained in Section 3, but sub-
ject to such rules as may be made in this behalf and the
Andhra Pradesh Educational Institutions (Regulation of
Admission) Order 1974, it shall be lawful for the manage-
ment of any on-aided private Engineering College, Medical
B
College, Dental College and such other class of on-aided
• ,>- educational institutions as may be notified by the Govern-
ment in this behalf to admit students into such Colleges or
educational institutions to the extent of one half of the total
number of seats from among those who have qualified in c
the common entrance test or in the qualifying examination,
as the case may be, referred to in sub-section (1) of Sec-
tion-3 irrespective of the ranking assigned to them in such
test or examination and nothing contained in Section 5 shall
apply to such admission."
D
It is necessary to notice what 'precisely this Section provides for. It
starts with a non-obstante clause - "Notwithstanding anything contained in
Section 3, but subject to such rules as may be made in this behalf and the
Andhra Pradesh Educational Institutions (Regulation of Admission) Order
E
• 1974 (Presidential order issued under Article 371-D of the Constitution)";
it then says that it shall be lawful for the management of any on-aided
private Engineering college, Medical College, Dental College and such
other class of on-aided educational institutions as may be notified by the
Government in this behalf to admit students into such Colleges or educa-
tional institutions to the extent of 50 per cent of the seats from among those F
qualified in the entrance test or the qualifying examination, as the cas~ may
_ __,.J...___ be; the section says further - rather curiously - that the educational institu-
tion shall be entitled to admit them irrespective of the ranking assigned to
them in the entrance test or qualifying examination and further that nothing
contained in Section 5 shall apply to such admission. In short it means that
it is open to a private medical/engineering college to admit students of its G
choice to the extent of 50 per cent - so long as they have qualified in the
..._ common entrance test - without regard to the ranking and/or merit. The
dispensing with of the Section 5 for the above purpose is a clear indication
that it is open to the institution to collect such capitation fee as it can from
such students. Of course, the 't:qition fee' shall be same as is prescribed by H
636 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993] 1 S.C.R.

A the Government under Section 7.

Section 3-A came into force on 15.4.1992. No Rules have been made
by the Government under the Secion so far.

17. On 255.1992, the Government issued a notification inviting ap-
B
plications for permission to establish Medical, Dental and Engineering
Colleges. The last date prescribed for receipt of applications was 8.6.1992.
The applicants for Medical Colleges had to deposit within the said date a
sum of rupees one crore in cash, furnish bank guarantee for another one •
crore and produce evidence of financial viability to the extent of four
C crores. A committee was appointed to inspect the land and other facilities
offered by the applicants. The Committee formulated its guidelines on
28.6.1992 and submitted its report on 21.7.1992 recommending as many as
12 Medical Colleges and 8 Dental Colleges. The then Chief Minister
approved the same on 27.7.1992 and a G.O. was issued on the same day
D granting permission. A number of Writ Petitions were immediately filed in
the High Court challenging the said grant as well as Section 3-A.

18. There are a number of private engineering colleges in the State.
Until the current academic year (1992-1993), all the Eeats in these colleges
were filled in by the convenor of the common entrance examination. The
E management had no discretion or choice in the matter of admission of
students. They were, however, permitted to charge a particular fees which
was relatively higher than the fees charged in the Government Engineering
Colleges. Nothing more. But when Section 3-A was introduced in the 1983
Act on 15.4.1992, these private engineering colleges took the stand that
F they are entitled to admit students to the extent of 50 per cent of the seats
according to their choice, irrespective of merit, so long as they have
qualified in the entrance test. It is obvious that such a stand meant
collection of capitation fee as much as they could. There was an uproar
among the student and teaching community against such admissions. Even
G the Government could not ignore the said protest and intimated the private
engineering colleges on 26.7.1992 not to make any admissions till the Rules
are made under Section 3-A. The engineering colleges, however, took the
stand that they have already made the admissions according to their choice
to the extent of 50 per cent. Indeed all this was facilitated by the fact that
convenor allotted students to these engineering college~ only to the extent
H of 50 per cent of their respective capacity instead of 100% as usual -
{ UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 637

thereby sending an explicit signal that the colleges were free to fill up the A
rest on their own. Be that as it may, these admissions led to the filing of a
batch of Writ petitions in the Andhra Pradesh High Court. Following
~ Mohim Jain and also on certain other grounds, a Full Bench of the Andhra
Pradesh High Court allowed the Writ Petitions. It declared Section 3-A
un-Constitutional. It also declared that the admissions made by the private
Engineering Colleges to the extent of 50 per cent at their own choice was
B
illegal. The Court further declared that the grant of permission to 12
Medical and 8 Dental Colleges was equally invalid. It is against the said
decision that the State of Andhra Pradesh, certain educational institutions
J and the students admi!ted at the choice of the managements have come
forward with a number of Special leave petitions. c
19. Leave is granted in all the Special leave petitions preferred
""-· against the Full Bench decision of the Andhra Pradesh High Court dated
18th September, 1992 in Writ Petition No. 8248 of 1992 and batch. Besides
the appeals, there are a few writ petitions from this State questioning the
correctness of the dicta in Mohini Jain. D
" ,A

STATE OF MAHARASHTRA

20. The Maharashtra Legislature enacted the Maharashtra Educa-
tional Institutions (Prohibition of Capite.tion Fee) Act, 1987 (being E
Maharashtra Act No. VI of 1988) to prohibit collection of capitation fee
,..._ for admission of students to, and the: · promotion to a higher standard or
class in, the educational institution• in the State of Maharashtra and to
provide for matters connected therewith. The Preamble to the Act
declaims:
F
'WHEREAS the practice of collecting capitation fee for
admitting students into educational institutions and at the
time of promoting students to a higher standard or class at
various stages of education is on the increase in the State;

AND WHEREAS this undesirable practice has been con-
G
tributing to large scale commercialisation of education
which is not conducive to the maintenance of educational
standards;
,>-..
AND WHEREAS the National Policy on Education 1986 H
638 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.CR.

A envisages that the commercialisation of technical and
professional education should be curbed and that steps
should be taken to prevent the establishment of institutions
set up to commercialise education;

AND WHEREAS with a view to effectively curb this evil
B practice, it is expedient in the public interest to prohibit
collection of capitation fee for admission of students to,
and their promotion to a higher standard or class in, the
educational institutions in the State of Maharashtra and to
provide for matters connected therewith; it is hereby
c enacted in the Thirty- eighth year of the Republic of India
as follows:"

21. Section 2 defines certain expressions occurring in the Act. Clause
(a) defines capitation fee to mean 'any amount, by whatever name called,
D whether in cash or kind, paid or collected, directly or indirectly, in excess
of the prescribed or, as the case may be, approved, rates of fees regulated
under section-4". Sub-Section (1) of Section 3 prohibits the collection of
capitation fee .either for admission of a student or for his promotion to
higher class. Sub-Section (2), however, permits the management of an·
educational institution to collect and accept donations from benevolent
E persons, organisations, trust.s and other associations but says that no seats
shall be reserved in consideration thereof. The moneys so received shall
have to be deposited and dealt with in the prescnbed manner. Sub-section
(3) provides that if in any case it is found that any private educational
institution has contravened any provisions of the Act or the Rules made
F thereunder, it shall be directed to refund the same to the person from
whom it was collected. Section 4 empowers the Government to regulate
the tuition fee that may be received or collected by any educational
institution for adinission to any course of study in such institution. Separate
fee shall have to be prescribed for aided institutions and un-aided institu-
G tions. In the case of un-tUded institutions, the tuition fee shall be prescribed
"having regard to the usual expenditure excluding any expenditure on lands
and buildings or on any such other item as the State Government may notify.'
Different scales of tuition fee can be prescribed for different institutions
or different areas or different courses of study, as the case may be. Section
7 provides for punishment which may extend to three years and fine in case
H of contravention of any provisions of Act or Rules.
~ \

UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 639

22. It is stated that the government of Maharashtra had prescribed A
an uniform fee of Rs. 6,500/ per annum in the case of private un,aided
engineering colleges, which was raised to Rs. 8,500/ in 1991. In 1992, the
fees was raised only in the case of outside students (students outside the
Maharashtra State) to Rs. 17,000/.
B
It is also stated that the government of Maharashtra has issued a
notification directing that 90% of the seats in any private engineering
college shall he filled hy nominees of the Government and the remaining
~
_;. 10 per cent by the management at its discretion. In the case of medical
colleges, the fee prescribed in the case of private un,aided medical colleges
for the current academic year is Rs. 30,000/ for Maharashtra students and c
- Rs. 60,000/ in the case of outside students. In the case of medical colleges,
20% of the seats are allowed to be filled by the management at their
discretion. Remaining 80% seats are to be filled by the Government
nominees.
~-
~ D
23. Mahatma Gandhi Mission, Nanded, the appellant in C.A. No.
3573 of 1992 was permitted by the State Government to start an un-aided
medical college at Aurangabad. It is stated that the appellant is a Public
Charitable Trust registered under Societies Registration Act, 1860 as well
as Bombay Public Trusts Act, 1950. The medical college is affiliated to E
, Marathwada University and is also rec'.>gnised by the Maharashtra medical
-~
council. The total intake capacity is 10 l seats each year. The permission to
start medical college was accorded lo the appellant on no-grant-in-aid
basis. The appellant was allowed to fill 20% of the seats at their discretion
from among those students who have obtained a minimum of 50% of the
marks in the aggregate in specified subjects and have passed the qualifying F
examination in their first attempt. (There is no system of common entrance
A. test in Maharashtra). Admissions were accordingly made for the current
academic year. Soon after the decision of this c.ourt in l\fohini Jain, a large
number of students filed a writ petition in the High Court of Bombay
(Aurangabad Bench) claiming refund of the fee collected from them in G
excess of the fee prescribed by the Government for students admitted in
government medical colleges for such course. A Division Bench made an
)._ interim order on 27th August, 1992 directing the appellant institution to
I
furnish a bank guarantee to the extent of 50% of the excess amount
collected by them from the students, i.e., in a sum of Rs. 42 lakbs pending H
' )"

640 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993] 1 S.C.R.

A disposal of the writ petition. It was further directed that pending disposal
of the writ petition, the institution shall not collect any amount in excess
of Rs. 3,000/ from any of the students. The said interlocutory_ order is
challenged by the appellant in Civil Appeal No. 3572 of 199'2.

24. Writ Petition 855•of 1992 is filed by Jammu and Kashmir Parents
B
Association of Students questioning the notification issued by the Govern-
ment of Maharashtra obligating the outside-Maharashtra students to pay
double the tuition fee payable by the Maharashtra students.
-\-
25. Writ Petition 678 of 1992 is preferred by maharashtra Institute of
c Technology, Pune questioning the correctness of Mohini Jain and praying
for issuance of a declaration that the petitioner has a fundamental right
under Article 19(1) (g) of the Constitution of India to establish and run a
self-financing engineering college subject to compliance with the regulatory
requirements of the statute. The petitioner has also invoked Article 19(1)
D (c) as conferring upon him a right to establish/form any association to run
an engineering college on self-financing basis.
k -.
TAMILNADU

26. Soon after the decision in Mohini Jain, the Governor of Tamil
E Nadu promulgated an ordinance being ordinance No. 10 of 1992 called the
Tamil Nadu Educational Institutious (Prohibition of collection of capita- ~- '
tion fee) Ordinance, 1992. The ordinance has since been substituted by an
Act - Tamil Nadu Educational Institutions (Prohibition of collection of
capitation fee) Act, 1992, being Act No. 57 of 1992. The Act is designed
F to prohibit the collection of capital fee for admission to educational institu-
tions in the State of Tamil Nadu and provide for matters relating thereto.
The preamble to the Act recites:
_,...,
"WHEREAS tlie practice of collecting capital fee for ad-
milting students into educational institutions is widespread
G in the State;

AND WHEREAS this undesirable practice, besides con-
tributing a large scale commercialisation of education, has . --\
not been conducive to the maintenance of educational
H standards;
-{
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF A.P. [REDDY, J.] 641

AND WHEREAS it is considered necessary to effectively A
curb this undesirable practice, in public interest, by
prohibiting the collection of capitation fee and to provide
for matters relating thereto;

BE it enacted by the Legislative Assembly of the State of
Tamil Nadu in the Forty-third year of the Republic of India B
as follows:"

27. The Act has been given effect from 20th day of August, 1992, the
date on which the ordinance was issued. The expression 'capitation fee' is
defined in Clause (a) of Section 2 to mean "any amoun~ by whatever name C
called, paid or collected, directly or indirectly, in excess of the fee
prescribed under Section 4." Section 3 prohibits the collection of capitation
fee by any educational institution or by any person on its behalf. Section 4
empowers the government to regulate the fee chargeable in educational
institutions. Once such a notification is issued, no institution can charge or
collect any fee over and above the fee prescribed. The Section reads thus: D
"4. (1) tlotwithstanding any contained in any other law for
the time being in force, the Government may, by notifica-
tion, regulate the tuition fee or any other fee or deposit
that may be received or collected by any educational in-
stitution or class or classes of such educational institutions E
in respect of any or all class or classes of students:

Provided that before issuing a notification under this sub-
section, the draft of which shall be published in the Tamil
Nadu Government Gazette stating that any objection or
F
suggestion which may be received by the Government,
within such period as may by specified therein, shall be
considered by them.

(2) No educational institutfon shall receive or collect any
fee or accept deposit in excess of the amount notified under G
sub-section (1).

(3) Every educational institution shall issue an official
receipt for the fee or deposit received or collected by it."

Section 5 empowers the Government to regulate the maintenance of H
642 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.C.R.

A accounts by the educational institutions in such manner as may be
prescribed. Similarly, Section 6 empowers the Government to call upon the
educational institutions to submit such returns or statements in such form
and in such manner as may be prescribed or carrying out the purposes of
the Act. Section 7 Provides for penalties in case of contravention of any of
B the provisions of the Act or the rules made thereunder. The minimum
punishment is three years imprisonment which may extend up to seven
years in addition to fine. Besides penalty, the educational institution is also
made liable to refund the excess amount/capitation fee collected to the
concerned students/persons. Section 12 gives an overriding effect to the
-
provisions of the Act over any other law for the time being in force. Section
C 14 confers upon the Government the power to make rules to carry out the
purposes of the Act. It is not brought to our notice that rules have been
made under the Act as yet. Sri P.R. Seetharaman, learned counsel for the
State of Tamil Nadu, however, filed a statement "THE PRESENT ADMIS-
SION FORMULA IN RESPECT OF SELF-FINANCING PRIVATE
D MEDICAL COLLEGES AND ENGINEERING COLLEGES IN
TAMIL NADU". It is necessary to set out the statement in full. It reads:

"The Government of Tamil Nadu has also recently con-
stituted a committee for examining proposals regarding
regulation of fixation of fees in respect of self-financing
E colleges of medical and engineering and of Art and Science
as well as unaided courses of private aided colleges. True
copy of the order is annexed hereto. The self-financing
Medical Colleges in Tamil Nadu are allowed to admit
candidates of their choice up to 60% of the approved intake
F of the college adhering to the minimum mark rule
prescribed for Government Medical Colleges. The remain-
ing 40% of the seats are allowed by the Director of Medical
Education every year and this is filled froin among the
approved list of candidates selected for admission to
Government and Private Medical Colleges. The self-
G finarcing private Engineering Colleges are allowed to
admit candidates cf their choice up to 50% of approved
intake of the college under Management quota. The
remaining 50% of the seats are allowed by the Director of
Technical Education every year from among the approved
H list of candidates selected for admission to Government
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 643

and aided colleges. True copies of the orders passed by tne A
Government of Tamil Nadu are annexed hereto.

DATEDATDELHITHISlOTHDAYOFDECEMBER,
1992.

COUNSEL FOR TAMIL ]'IADU.' B
, 28. Sri Seetharaman further stated that the Government will insist
that from the students admitted against 40% government seats, only the
fee collected in government medical colleges will be allowed to be col-
lected. He also brongbt to our notice that the government has constituted C
a committee to go into and frame rules regulating the fee structure in
self-financing medical, engineering and other colleges. (vide G.O.M.S.1172
Education (JI) Deptt. dated 30.11.1992.).

29. Writ Petition 701 of 1992 is filed by the Annamalai University and
its Pro-Chancellor, Dr. M.A.M. Ramaswamy questioning the provisions of D
the above Act and the correctness of the principles enunciated in Mohini
Jain. A writ of mandamus is sought by this institution directed to the
respondents (State of Tamil Nadu, Union of India and the University
Grants Commission) 'to forbear from in any manner interfering with the
right of the petitioner to collect capitation fees by whatever nomenclature E
the said fee or payment may be described from the students seeking
admission into various degree courses in the colleges under the control of
the petitioner University to cover a reasonable return on the capital
investment. and meet the recurring expenditure every year for running the
course in the colleges including for running Rajah Sir Muthiah Medical
College and Hospital from the various studep.ts who seek admission and F
who have the requisite merit to be admitted and who are ready and willing
to pay such amount.' Yet another mandamus is sought directing the
respondents to ensure that the petitioners are not c<>mpelled to charge
merely the rates of fees ru. charged by colleges run by the State Government
from the students who have the requisite merit for admission irrespective G
of their capacity to contribute for the maintenance and running of the
college as and by way of payment of fees by whatever nomenclature it may
be called.

30. The petitioners have come forward with the following case:
Annamalai University is an autonomous residential unitary university es- H
644 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A tablished and incorporated under the Annamalai University Act, 1928 ~
enacted by the then Madras Legislature. It has 45 faculties including
Engineering and Technology and Medicine. So far as the medical college
is concerned, the annual intake is 125. Against this strength of 125, the
petitioner admits 50 students belonging to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled !

Tribes and backward classes. Only a nominal fee is collected from them.
B From the remaining 75 students, a sum of Rs. 4 lakhs is collected by way
of fees. This sum of Rs. 4 lakhs is hardly sufficient to meet the cost of
-~
~

medical education. Unless this minimum fee of Rs. 4 lakhs is collected from
at least 75 students, it is not possible for the petitioner to run the medical
college which is attached to a hospital. While so, the Governor of Tamil
c Nadu has issued the aforesaid ordinance prohibiting the capitation fee.
This ordinance has evidently been issued pursuant to the decision of this
Court in Mohini Jain. If the petitioner is compelled to collect only that fee
which is· charged by the Government in Government Medical Colleges, it
would be impossible to run the medical college. It has to close down. The -'
impugned ordinance {by the date of filing of writ petition the Act replacing ·
D
the ordinance bad not yet come into force) is violative of the fundamental
right of the petitioners to establish and administer a medical college by
collecting appropriate amounts from the students who are ready and
willing to pay the same for their admission into the medical college, says
the petitioner.
E ~
PART II

Question No. 1: "Whether the Constitution of India guarantees a fun-
datnental right to education to its citizens?"
F
31. Right to education is not stated expressly as a fundamental right
in Part Ill. This Cour.t bas, however, not followed the rule that unless a
right is expressly stated as a 'fundamental right, it cannot be treated as one.
Freedom of Press is not expressly mentioned in Part Ill, yet it has been
G read into and inferred from the freedom of speech and expression - Expres~
Newspapers '· Union of India, .(1959] S.C.R. 12. More particularly, from
Article 21 has sprung up a whole lot of human rights jurisprudence viz.,
right to legal aid and speedy trial Hussain Ara Khatoon, (1979) 3 S.C.R.
532 to A.R. Antulay, (1992) 1 S.C.R.' 225, the right to means of livelihood
Olga Tellis, (1985) Supp. 2 S.C.R. 5.1., right to di:;nity and privacy, Kharak.
H Singll) (1964j 1 S.C.R. 332, right to health Vincent. v. Union of India, [1987]
•

UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 645

2 S.C.R. 468), right to pollution-free environment M.C. Mehta v. Union of A
India, (1988] 1 S.C.R. 279 and so on. Let us elaborate.

32. In Express Newspapers v. Union of India, (1959] S.C.R. 12 it has
been held:

'The freedom of speech comprehends the freedom of press
B
and the freedom of speech and press are fundamental and
personal rights of the citizens.'

33. Article 21 declares that no person shall be deprived of his life or
personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law. It is C
true that the Article is worded in negative terms but it is now well-settled
that Article 21 has both a negative and an affirmative dimension. As far
back as 1962, a Constitution Bench (comprising of six learned Judges) in
Kharak Singh v. State of Uttar Pradesh and Ors., (1964] 1 S.C.R. 332 decided
on 18th December, 1962 considered the content of the expression 'personal D
liberty" occurring in Article 21. Rajgopala Ayyangar, J. speaking for the
majority, observed:

"We shall now proceed with the examination of the width,
scope and content of the expression "personal liberty" in
Article 21. We feel unable to hold that the term was E
intended to bear only this narrow interpretation but on the
other hand consider that "personal liberty'' is used in the
Article as a compendius term to include within itself all the
varieties of rights which go to make up the 'personal
liberties" of man other than those deal with in the several F
cl~uses of Art. 19(1). In other words, while Art.19(1) deals
with particular species or attributes of that freedom, "per-
sonal liberty" in Art. 21 takes in and comprises the residue."

The leaned Judge quoted the dissenting opinion of Field, J. (one of those G
dissenting opinions which have out-lived the majority pronouncements) in
Munn v. Illinois, (1877 (94) U.S. 113/142 attributing a broader meaning to
the word "life" in the fifth and fourteenth amendments to the U.S. Con-
stitution, which correspond inter alia to Article 21 of our Constitution. The
learned Judge held that the word 'personal liberty' would include the
privacy and sanctity of a· man's home as well as the dignity of the individual. H
II
646 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.C.R.

A The minority Judges, however, placed a more expansive interpreta-
tion on Article 21. They said:

'No doubt the expression 'personal liberty' is a comprehen-
sive one and ihe right to move freely is an attribute of
personal liberty. It is said that the freedom to move freely
B is carved .out of personal liberty and, therefore, the expres-
sion 'personal liberty' in Art. 21 excludes that attribute. In
our view, this is not a correct approach. Both are inde-
pendent fundamental rights, though there is overlapping.
There is no question of one being carved out of another.
c The fundamental right of life and personal liberty has many
attributes and some of them are found in Art. 19. If a
person's fundamental right under Art. 21 is infringed, the
State can rely upon a law to sustain the action, but that
cannot be a complete answer unless the said law satisfies
the test laid down in Art. 19(2) so far as the attributes
D covered by Art. 19(1) are concerned.'

34. In Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India, [1978) S.C. 597 Bhagwati,
J. held that the judgment ih R.C. Cooper v. Union of India, 1970 S.C. 564
nas the effect of overruling the majority opinion and of approving the
E minority opinion in Kharak Singh.

35. In Bolling v. S~arpe, 98 Lawyers Ed. 884 Warren, C.J. speaking
for the U.S. Supreme Court observed "although the court has not assumed
to define "liberty" with any great precision, that term is not confined to
mere freedom from bodily restraint. Liberty under law extends to the full
F
range of conduct which the individual is free to pursue, and it cannot be
restricted except for a proper governmental objective." Having said so, the
learned Judge proceeded to observe "segregation in public education is not
reasonably related to any proper governmental objective, and thus 1t im-
poses on Negro children of the District of Columbia a burden tnat con-
G stitutes an arbitrary deprivation of their liberty in violation of the Due
Process Clause.'

36. The word "life" occurring in Article 21 too has received a broad
and expansive interpretation. While it is not necessary to refer to all of
H them, reference must be made to the decision in Olga Tellis v. Bombay
{

UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 647

Municipal Cotporation, (1985] Suppl. 2 S.C.R. 51. Chandrachud, CJ. speak- A
ing for a Constitution Bench of this court observed:
.t-
'The sweep of the right to life conferred by Article 21 is
wide and far reaching. It does not mean merely that life
cannot be extinguished or taken away as, for example, by
the imposition and execution of the death sentence, except B
according to procedure established by law. That is but one
aspect of the right to life. An equally important facet of
> that right is the right to livelihood because, no person can
live without the means of living, that is, the means of
livelihood. If the right to livelihood is not treated as a part c
of the constitutional right to life, the easiest way of depriv-
ing a person his right to life would be to deprive him of his
means of livelihood to the point of abrogation. Such
deprevation would not only denude the life of its effective
-, ~ content and meaningfulness but it would make life impos-
D
sible to live. And yet, such depreivation would not have to
be in accordance with the procedure established by law, if
the right to livelihood is not regarded as a part of the right
to life. That, which alone makes it possible to live, leave
aside what makes life viable, must be deemed to be an
integral component of the right to life. Deprive a person E
A
of his right to livelihood and you shall have deprived him
of his life .........

Article 39(a) of the Constitution, which is a Directive
Principle of State Policy, provides that the State shall, in F
particular, direct its policy towards securing that the
..... citizens, men and women equally, have the right to an
adequate means of livelihood. Article 41, which is another
Directive Principle provides, inter a/ia, that the State shall,
wi•hin the limits of its economic capacity and development,
make effective provision for securing the right to work in G
cases of unemployment and of undeserved want. Article 37
provides that the Directive Principles, though not enforce-
.>-
able by any court, are nevertheless fundamental in the
governance of the country. The Principles contained in
Articles 39(a) and 41 must be regarded as equally fundamen- H
648 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993] 1 S.C.R.

A tal in the understanding and interpretation of the meaning
and content of fundamental rights. If there is an obligation
upon the State to secure to the citizens an adequate means
of livelihood and the right to work, it would be sheer
pedantry to exclude the right to livelihood from the content
of the right to life.'
B
37. In Bandhua Mukti Morcha v. Union of India [1984] 2 S.C.R. 67
Bhagwat~ J. while affirming the proposition that Article 21 must be con- --\._
strued in the light of the Directive Principles of the State Policy observed
thus:
c
"This right to live with human dignity enshrined in Article 21
derives its life breath from the Directive Principles of State
Policy and particularly clauses (e) and (t) of Article 39 and
Articles 41 and 42 and at the least, therefore, it must
include protection of the health and strength of workers
D men and women, and of the tender age of children against
abuse, opportunities and facilities of children to develop
in a healthy· manner and in conditions of freedom and
dignity, educational facilities, just and humane conditions
of work and maternity relief. These are the minimum re-
E quirements which must exist in order to enable a person to
live with h•,man dignity .... ."

In D.S. Nakara v. Union of India, [1983] S.C.R. 130, a Constitution
Bench explained the significance of the addition of the expression
'Socialist" in the preamble of our Constitution in the following words:
F
'During the formative years .... socialism aims at providing
all opporiunities for pursuing the educational activity .... .
There will be equitable distribution of national cake ....."

G In Vincent v. Union of india, [1987] 2 S.C.R. 46ll, it was held by a
Division Bench of this Court that:

'In a welfare State, therefore, it is the obligation of the State
to ensure the creation and the sustaining of conditions
congenial to good health ........ In a series of pronounce-
H ments, during the recent years, this court has culled out
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 649

from the provisions of Part IV of the Constitution, the A
several obligations of the State and called upon it to effec-
tuate them in order that the resultant pictured by the
Constitution fathers may become a reality."

In A.R. Antulay v. R.S. Naik, (1992) 1 S.C.R. 225, a Constitution
Bench of this Court held that Article 21 creates a right in the accused to B
be tried speedily and that the said right encompasses all the stages of a
criminal case. It was held that the violation of this right of the accused may
.C entail the very quashing of the charges.

Interplay of parts Ill and IV:
c
38. This Court has also been consistently adopting the approach that
the fundamental rights and directive principles are supplementary and
complementary to each other and that the provisions in Part III should be
interpreted having regard to the Preamble and the directive principles of
the. State policy. The initial hesitation to recognise the profound sig- D
nificance of Part IV has been given up long ago. We may explain.

While moving for consideration the interim report on fundamental
rights, Sardar Vallabhai Patel described both the rights mentioned in P'lfts
III and IV as 'fundamental rights' - one justificiable and other non-justici- E
able. In his supplemental repor~ he stated:

"There were two parts of the report; one contains fun-
damental rights which were justiciable and the other part
of the report refers to fundamental rights which were not
justiciable but were directives." F
This statement indicates the significance attached to directive prin-
ciples by the founding fathers. It is true that in The state of Madras v.
Champakam Dorairajan, (1959) S.C.R. 995, fundamental rights were held
preeminent vis-a-vis Directive Principles but since then there has been a
perceptible shift in this Court's approach to the inter-play of Fundamental G
Rights and Directive Principles.

).. 39. As far back as in 1958, in the Kerala Education Bill a Special
Bench of this Court speaking through S.R. Das, CJ., while affirming the
primacy of Fundamental Rights, qualified the same with the following H
650 slJPREME COURT REPORTS [19'J3) 1 S.C.R.

A observations:

'Nevertheless, in determining the scope and ambit of the
fundamental rights relied upon by or on behalf of any
person or body, the court may not entirely ignore these
directive principle,-; of State policy laid down in Part IV of
B the Constitution but should adopt the principle of har-
monious construction and should attempt to give effect to
both as 1nuch as possible '

This is also the view taken in Hanif v. State of Bihar, [1959) S.C.R.
C 629 at 655.
In Keshavananda Bharati v. State of Kera/a, 1973 Suppl. 521 more
than one learned Judge adverted to this aspect. In the words of Hegde and
Mukherjee. JJ .:

'The Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles con-
D ·~- -
stitute the 'conscience' of the Constitution ........ To ignore
Part IV is to ignore the sustenance provided for in the
Constitution, the hopes held out to the nation and the very
ideals on which our Constitution is built. ....... There is no
anti-thesis between the Fundamental Rules and the Direc-
E tive Principles.... One Supplements the other.'

Shela! and Grover, JJ. in their judgment observed:

'Both Parts Ill and IV....have to be balanced and har-
monised ......then alone the dignity of the individual can be
F achieved....... They (Fundamental Rights and Directive
Principles) were meant to supplement each other.'

Mathew, J. while adopting the same approach remarked:

'The object of the people in establishing the Constitution
G was to promote justice, social and economic liberty and
equality. The modus operandi to achieve these objectives .
is set out in Parts Ill and IV of the Constitution. Both Parts
Ill and IV enumerate certain moral rights. Each of thes~
Parts represents in the main the statements in one sense of
H as
certain aspirations whose fulfilment was regarded ess~n-
-4
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 651

tial to the kind of society which the Constitution-makers A
wanted to build. Many of the articles, whether in Part III
or Part IV, represent moral rights which they have recog-
nised as inherent in every human being in his country. The
task of protecting and realising these rights is imposed
upon all the organs of the State, namely, legislative, execu-
B
tive ·and judicial. What then is the importance to be at-
!ached to the fact that the provisions of Part III are
enforceable in a Court and the provisions in Part IV are
not? Is it that the rights reflected in the provisions of Part
;... III are somehow superior to the moral claims and aspira-
tions reflected in the provisions of Part IV? I think not. c
Free and compulsory education under Article 45 is certain-
ly as important as freedom of religion under Article 25.
Freedom from starvation is as important as right to life.
• Nor are the provisions in Part III absolute in the sense that
the rights represented by them can always be given full
D
implementation."
• __ J--..,
Y.V. Chandrachud, J. (as he then was) put the same idea in the
following words:

"As I look at the provisions of Parts III and IV, I feel no E
doubt,· that the basic object of conferring freedoms on
individuals is the ultimate achievement of the ideals set out
.. )...,
in Part IV..... May I say that the directive principles of State ·
policy should not be permitted to become 'a mere rope of
sand'. If the State fails to create conditions in which the
fundamental freedoms can be enjoyed by all, the freedom F
of the few will be at the mercy of the many and then all
freedoms will vanish."

/.._ 40. In State of Kamataka v. Rmiganatha Reddy, Krishna Iyer, J. stated:
G
"Our thesis is that the dialectics of social justice should not.
be missed if the systhesis of Part III and Part IV is to
influence State action and Court pronouncements.'

In U.P.S.C. Board v. Harishankar, A.l.R. 1979 S.C. 65 it was observed:
.I.
"Addressed to courts, what the injunction (Article 37) means is that while H
}
652 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A courts are not free to direct the making of legislation, courts are bound to
evolve, affrrm and adopt principle of interpretation which will further and
not hinder the goals set out in the Directive Principles of State Policy. This
command of the constitution must be everpresen.t in the minds of the __...,
Judges while interpreting statutes which concern themselves directly or
indirectly with matters set out in the Directive Principles of State Policy.'
B This is on the view that the 'State' in Article 36 read with Article 12
includes the judiciary as well,

In Minerva Mills v. Union of India, A.LR. 1980 S.C. 1789, Chan-
drachud, CJ. quoted with approval the similie of Granvlle Austin that Parts
~-
c III and IV are like two wheels of a chariot and observed that 'to give •
absolute primacy to one over the other is to disturb the harmony of the
Constitution.' The learned Chief Justice observed further:

"Those rights (Fundamental Rights) are not an end in ~

themselves but are the means to an end. The end is
D specified in Part IV.'
...
41. It is thus well established by the decisions of this Court that the
provisions of Parts III and IV are supplementary and complementary to
each other and that Fundamental Rights are but a means to achieve the
E goal indicated in Part IV. It is also held that the Fundamental Rights must
be construed in the light of the Directive Principles. It is from the above
stand point that Question No.l has to be approached. _1._
~
ARTICLE 21 AND RIGHT TO EDUCATION:

F 42. In Bandhua Mukti Morch this court held that the right to life
guaranteed by Article 21 does take in "educational facilities'. (The relevant
,.'
portion has been quoted hereinbefore). Having regard to the fundamental
significance of education to the life of an individual and the nation, and
adopting the reasoniqg and logic adopted in the earlier decisions of this
G Court referred to hereinbefore, we hold, agreeing with the statement in
Bandhua Mukti Morcha, that right to education is implicit in and flows from
the right to life guaranteed by Article 21. That the right to education has
been treated as one of transcendental importance in the life of an in-
dividual has recognised not only in this country since thousands of years,
IH but all over the world. In Mohini Jain, the importance of education has
'
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 653

been duly and rightly stressed. The relevant observations have already been A
set out in para 7 hereinbefore. In particular, we agree with the observation
>- that without education being provided to the citizens of this country,· the
objectives set forth in the Preamble to the Constitution cannot be achieved.
The Constitution would fail. We do not think that the importance of
education could have been better emphasised than in the above words. The B
importance of education was emphasised in the 'Neethishatakam' hy
Bhartruhari (rtrSt Century B.C.) in the following words:
~
'Translation:

Education is the special manifestation of man; c
Education is the treasure. which can be preserved without
the fear of loss;

Education secures material pleasure, happiness and fame;
J.. D
Education is the teacher of the teacher;

Education is God incarnate;

Education secures honour at the hands of the State, not
money. E
'-
A
A man without education is equal to animal.'

The fact that right to education occurs in as many as three Articles
in Part IV viz., Articles 41, 45 and 46 shows the importance attached to it
by the founding fathers. Even some of the Articles in Part ill viz., Articles F
29 and 30 speak of education.
~,.__

43. In Brown v. Board. of Education, 98 Lawyers Ed. 873, Earl
Warren, CJ., speaking for the' U.S. Supreme Court emphasised the right
to education in the following words:
G
"Today, education is perhaps the most important function
of state and local governments........ It is required in the
,/- . performance of our most basU: responsibilities, even ser-
vice in the armed forces. It is the very foundation of good
citizenship. Today it is the principal instrument in awaken- .H
).

654 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A ing the child to cultural values, in preparing him for later
professional training, and in helping him to adjust normally
to his environment. In these days, it is doubtful any child
may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if he is denied
the opportunity of an education."

B In Wisconsin v. Yoder, 32 L.Ed. 2d, 15 the Court recognised that:

· "Providing public schools ranks at the very apex of the
function of a State."

c modernTheIndia
said fact has also been affirmed by eminent educationists of
like Dr. Radhakrishnan, J.P. Naik, Dr. Kothari and others.

44. It is argued by some of the counsel for the petitioners that Article
21 is negative an character and that it merely declares that no person shall
be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure
D established by law. Since the State is not depriving the respondents-stu-
dents of their right to education, Article 21 is not attracted, it is submitted.
If and when the State makes a law taking away the right to education, would
Article 21 be attracted, according to them. This argument, in our opinion,
is really born of confusion; at any rate, it is designed to confuse the issue.
E The first question is whether the right to life guranteed by Article 21 does
take in the right to education or not. It is then that the second question
arises whether the State is taking away that right. The mere fact that the
State is not taking away the right as at present does not mean that right to
education is not included within the right to life. The content of the righi
is not determined by perception of threat. The content of right to life is
F not to be determined on the basis of existence or absence of threat of
deprivation. The effect of holding that right to education is implicit in the
right to life is that the State cannot deprive the citizen of his right to
education except in accordance .with the procedure prescribed by law.

45. In the above state of law, it would not be correct to contend that
G Mohini Jain was wTong in so far as it declared that "the right to education
flows directly from right to life." But the question is what is the content of
this right? How much and what level of education is necessary to make the
life meaningful? Does it mean that every citizen of this country can call "°'I,
upon ·the State to provide him education of his cl.oice? In ·other words,
H whether the citizens of this country can demand that the State provide
. -(

UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 655

ad~uate number of medical colleges, engineering colleges and other A
educational institutions to satisfy all their educational needs? Mohini lain
~ seems to say, yes. With respect, we cannot agree with such a broad
proposition. The right to education which is implicit in the right to life and
personal liberty guaranteed by Article 21 must be construed in the light of the
directive. principles in Pait W of the Constitution. So far as the right to B
education is concerned, there are several articles in Part N which e:xpressly
speak of it. Article 41 says that the "State shall, within the limits of its
_).
economic capacity and development, make effective provision for securing
the right to work, to education and to public assistance in cases of un-
employment, old age, sickness and disablement, and in other cases of
underserved want.' Article 45 says that 'the State shall endeavour to
c
provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of this
Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they
complete the age of fourteen years.' Article 46 commands that 'the State
shall promote with special care the educational and economic interests of
- _J, D
the weaker sections of the people, and, in -particular, of the Scheduled
Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and shall -protect them from social
injustice and all forms of exploitation." Education means knowledge - and
knowledge itself is power.' As rightly observed by Johan Adams, 'the
preservation of means of knowledge among the lowest ranks is of more
importance to the public than all the property of all the rich men in the E
,I." country" (Dissertation on canon and fuedal law, 1765). It .is this concern
which seems to underlie Article 46. It is the tyrants and bad rulers who are
afraid of spread of education and knowledge among the deprived classes.
Witness Hitler railing against universal education. He said: "Universal
education is the most corroding and disintegrating poison that liberalism F
has ever in\lented for its own destruction." (Rauschniug, The voice of
destruction: Hitler speaks). A true democracy is one where education is
- ...__
universal, where people understand what is good for them and nation and
know how to govern themselves. The three articles 45, 46 and 41 are
designed to achieve the said goal among others. It is in the light of these G
articles that the content and parameters of the right to education have to
be determined. Right to education, understood in the context of Articles 45
and 41, means: (a) every child/citizen of this country has a right to free
>-, educatio~ until he completes the age of fourteen years and (b) after a
'
child/citizen complet~s 14 years, his right to education is circumscribed by the H
)
656 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.C.R.

A limits of the economic capacity of the State and its development. We may
deal with both these limbs separately. ·

Right to free education for all children until they complete the age of
fourteen years (45-A). It is noteworthy that among the several articles in part
B IV, only Article 45 speaks of a time-limit; no other article does. Has it no
significance? Is it a mere pious wish, even after 44 years of the Constitution?
Can the State flout the said direction even after 44 years on the ground that
the article merely calls upon it to 'endeavour to provide' the same and on the
further ground that the said article is not enforceable by virtue of the
declaration in Article 37. Does not the passage of 44 years - more than four
C times the period stipulated in Article 45 - convert the obligation created by
the article into an enforceable right? In this context, we feel constrained to
say that allocation of available funds to different sectors of education in India
discloses an inversion of priorities indicated by the Constitution. The Con-
stitution contemplated a crash programme being undertaken by the State to
D achieve the goal set out in Article 45. It is relevant to notice that Article 45
does not speak of the "limits of its economic capacity and development' as
does Article 41, which inter alia speaks of right to education. What has
actually happened is - more money is spent and more attention is directed to
higher education that to - and at the cost of - primary education. (By primary
education, we mean the education, which a normal child receives by the time
E he completes 14 years of age). Neglected more so are the rural sectors, and
the weaker sections of the society referred to in Article 46. We clarify, we are
not seeking to lay down the priorities for the government - we are only
emphasising the constitutional policy as disclosed by Articles 45, 46 and 41.
Surely the wisdom of these constitutional provisions is beyond question. This
F inversion of priorities has been commended upon adversely by both the
educationists and economists.

Gunnar Myrdal, the noted economist and sociologist, a recognised
authority on South Asia, in his book 'Asian Drama' (abridged Edition -
published in 1972) makes these perceptive observations at page 335:
G
"But there is another and more valid criticism to make.
Although the declared purpose was to give priority to the
increase of elementary schooling in order to raise the rate
of literacy in the population, what has actually happen~d
H is that secondary schooling has been rising much faster and
.{

UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 657

tertiary schooling has iocreased still more rapidly. There is A
} .. a fairly general tendency for planned targets of iocreased
primary schooling not to be reached, whereas targets are
over-reached, sometimes substantially, as regards in-
creases io se~ndary and, particularly, tertiary schooling.
This has all happened io spite of the fact that secondary
B
schooling seems to be three to five times more expensive
than primary schooling, and schooling at the tertiary level
five to seven times more expensive than at the secondary
level.

What we see functioniog here is the distortion of develop· c
ment from planned targets under the influence of the
pressure from parents and pupils io the upper strata who
everywhere are politically powerful. Even more remarkable
is the fact that this tendency to distortion from the poiot
of view of the planniog objectives is more accentuated io D
the poorest countries, Pakistan, India, Burma and In-
donesia, which started out with far fewer children io
primary schools and which should therefore have the
strongest reasons to carry out the programme of giving
primary schooling the highest priority. It is generally the
poorest countries that are spending least, even relatively, E
on primary education, and that are permitting the largest
distortions from the planned targets in favour of secondary
and tertiary education.'

F
In his other book "Challenge of World Poverty" (published io 1970)
he discusses elaborately - in chapter 6 'Education' - the reasons for and
the consequences of neglect of basic education in this country. He quotes
J.P. Naik, (the renowned educationist, whose Report of the Education
Commission, 1966 is still considered to be the most authoritative study of
education scene io India) as saying 'Educational development... ...... is G
benefitting the 'haves' more than the "have nots". This is a negation of
social justice and 'planniog' proper" - and our constitution speaks repeated-
ly of social justice (Preamble and Article 38(1)). As late as 1985, the
Ministry of Education has this to say in para 3.74 of its publication
"Challenge of Education - a policy perspective". It is stated there: H
)

658 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993) 1 S.C.R.

A '3.74. Considering the constitutional imperative regarding
the universalisation of elementary education it was to ~ , -(
expected that the share of this sector would be protected
from attribution. Facts, however, point iii the opposite
direction. From a share of 56 per cent in the First Plan, it
declined to 35 per cent in the Second Plan, to 34 per cent
B in the Third Plan, to 30 per cent in the Fourth Plan. It
started going up again only in the Fifth Plan, when it was
at the level of 32 per cent, increasing in Sixth Plan to 36 ---(_
per cent, still 20 per cent below the First Plan level. On the
other hand, between the First and the Sixth Fiv~ Year
c Plans, the share of university education went up from 9 per
cent to 16 _per cent.".

Be that as it may, we must say that at least now the State should
honour the command of Article 45. It must be made a reality - atleast now.
Indeed, the 'National Education Policy - 1986' says that the promise of,
,...... •
D
Article 45 will be redeemed before the end of this century. Be that as it
may, we hold that a child (citizen, has a fundamental right to free education
up to the age of 14 years.

46. This does not however mean that this obligation can be per-
E formed only through the State schools. It can also be done by permitting, A
recognising and aiding voluntary non-governmental organisations, who are
prepared to impart free education to children. This does not also mean
that unaided private schools cannot continue. They can, ·indeed, they too
have a role to play. They meet the demand of that segment of population
F who may not wish to have their children .educated in State-run schools.
They have necessarily to charge fees from the students. In this judgment,
however, we do not wish to say anything about such schools or for th~t ,......
matter other private educational institutions except 'professional colleges'.
This discussion is really necessitated on account of the principles enun-
ciated in Mohini Jain and the challenge mounted against those principles
G in these writ petitions.

47. At this juncture, it would be appropriate to refer to tne additional
affidavit filed by the Union of India. In this affidavit, the present state of '"""
primary and upper primary education is set out. (Primary stage means
H Classes I to V. Upper primary stage means classes VI to VIII). After
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STAlE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 659

setting out the particulars of number of schools and enrolment therein, it A
)-. is stated in para 3 that "this increase provided Indian.Education System
with one of the largest systems in the world, providing accessibility within.
1 Km. walking distance of Primary schools to 8.26 ·1akhs habitations con-
taining about 94% of the country's population. Growth in enrolment in the
decade of 80s showed an acceleration that has now brought enrolment B
rates close of 100% at primary stage." Again in para 4, under the sub-head-
ing "Free education", the following statement occurs:

"4. In the endeavour to increase enrolment and achieve the
target of UEE, all State Governments have abolished tui-
tion fees in Government Schools run by local bodies and c
private aided institutions is mostly free in these States;
however, in private unaided schools whcih constitute 3.7.%
Gf the'total elementary schools in the country, some fee is
charg~d. Thus, overall, it may be said that education up to
. elementary level in practically all schools is free. Other
. costs of education, such as text books, uniforms, schools D
bagS, transport etc. are not borne by States except in a very
few cases by way of incentives to children of indigent
families or those belonging to Scheduled Caste/Scheduled
Tribes categories. The reason why the Stale Government
are unable to bear this additional expenditure is that 96% E
A. of expenditure on elementary education goes in meeting
the salaries of teaching and non-teaching staff."

Para 5 of the affidavit deals with "Compulsory education". It reads as
follows:
F
11
5. 14 States and 4 Llnion Territories have enacted legis-
lation to make educational compulsory but the socio-
economic compulsions that keep the children away from
schools have restrained them from prescribing the rules
and regulations whereby those provisions can be en-
dorsed."
G

The affidavit also mentions the steps taken by Central and State
/
>- . Governments in pursuance of Naitonal Education Policy including 0pera- 11

tion Blackboard" and its contribution to the increase in primary education.
It was indeed gratifying to note these facts, though much more remains to H
660 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993) 1 S.C.R.

A be done to raise the quality of instruction.
Before proceeding further, we think it right to say this: We are aware . -(
that "Education is the second highest sector of budgeted expenditure aftet
the defence. A little more than three per cent of the Gross National
Product is spent in educavon', as pointed out in para 2.31 of 'Challenge of
B Education'. But this very 'publication says that 'in comparison to many
countries, IPdia spends much less on education in terms of the proportion
of Gross National Product' - and further "in spite of the fact that educa-
tional expenditure continues to be the highest item of expenditure next only ._.\__
to Defence the resource gap for educational needs is one of the major
c problems. Most of the current expenditure is only in the form of salary
payment. It hardly needs to be stated that additional capital expenditure
would greatly augment teacher productivity because in the absence of
expenditure on other beads even the utilisation of staff remains low.' We
do realise that ultimately it is a question of resources and resources-wise
this country is not in a happy position. All we are saying is that while
D allocating the available resources, due regard should be had to the wise >
words of Founding Fathers in Articles 45 and 46. Not that we are not aware
of the nnportance and significance of higher education. What may perhaps
be required is a proper balancing of the various sectors of education.

E Right to education after the child/citizen completes the age of 14 years.

48. The right to education further means that a citizen bas a right to ,....,
call upon the State to provide educational facilities to him within the limits
of its economic capacity and development. By saying so, we are not
transferring Article 41 from part IV to Part III - we are merely relying upon
F Article 41 to illustrate the content of the right to education flowing from
Article 21. We cannot believe that any State would say that it need not
provide education to its people even within the limits of its economic
capacity and development. It goes without saying that the limits of -~

economic capacity are, ordinarily speaking, matters within the subjective
satisfaction of the State.
G
49. In the light of the above enunciation, the apprehension expressed
by the counsel for the petitioners that by reading the right to education
into Article 21, this Court would be enabling each and every citizen of this .-..I..
country to approach the courts to compel the State to provide him such
H education as he chooses must be held to be unfounded. The right to free
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 661
/

education is available only to children until they complete the age of 14 A
years. Thereafter, the obligation of the State to provide education is subject
to the limits of its economic capacity and development. Indeed, we are not
stating anything new. This aspect has already been emphasised by this
Court in Francis C. Mullin v. AdministratoT, Union Territory of Delhi, (1981)
2 S.C.R. 516. While elaborating the scope of the right guaranteed under
B
Article 21, this court stated:

"But the question which arises is whether the right to life
is limited only to protection of limb or faculty or does it go
further and embrace something more. We think that the
right to life includes right to live with human dignity and c
all that goes along with it viz., the bare necessities of life
such as adequate nutrition, clothing and shelter and
facilities for reading, writing and expressing oneself in
divese forms, freely moving about the mixing and commin-
gling with fellow human beings. Of course, the magnitude
- -J, D
a11d content of the components of this right would depend
upon tile extent of the economic development of the country,
but it must in any view of the matter, include a right to the
basic necessities of life and also the right to carry on such
functions and activities as constitute the bare minimum
expression of the humanself." E
50. We must hasten to add that just because we have relied upon
some of the directive principles to locate the parameters of the right to
education implicit in Article 21, it does not follow automatically that each
and every obligation referred to in Part IV gets automatically included
within the purview of Article 21. We have held the right to education to F
be implicit in the right to life because of its inherent fundamental impor-
. tance. As a matte1 of fact, we have referred to Articles 41, 45 and 46 merely
to determine the parameters of the said right.

PART- Ill
G·
Question Nos. 2 and 3:

51. It would be convenient to deal with question Nos.2 and 3
together. The contentions urged by the counsel for the petitioners can be
broadly summarised in the following words: H
662 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A (a) The State has no monopoly in the matter of imparting education.
Every citizen has the fundamental right to establish an educational institu-
tion as a part of the right guraranteed to him by Article 19(l)(g) of the
Constitution. This right extends even to the establishment of an educational
institution with a profit motive i.e., as a business adventure. The said right,
no doubt, is subject to such reasonable restrictions as may be placed upon
B it by a law within the meaning of clause (6) of Article 19. But for the said
restrictions, the right is absolute.

(b) The vice lies not in the establishment of educational institutions
by individuals and private bodies but in unnecessary State control. The law
C of demand and supply.....what may be called the 'market forces' ...... must be
allowed a free play. Because there are more number of persons seeking
admission that the existing institutions can provide that the several ills
complained of have developed.

(c) The establishment of an education institution is no different from
D
any other venture e.g., starting a business or industry. It is immaterial
whether the institution is established with or without profit motive. Indeed,
only when there is profit motive that persons with means would come
forward to open more and more schools and colleges. There are not many
persons available today who are prepared to donate large funds for estab-
E lishing such institutions by way of charity or philantrophy.

(d) Even if it is held, for any reason, that a person has not right to
establish an education institution as a business venture, be has atleast the
right to establish a self-financing educational institution. Such a institution
F may also be described as an institution providing cost-based education.
This means that it is open to a person to collect amounts from willing
parties and establish an institution to educate such persons or their
children, as the case may be. Even in an established institution, the fees
that may collected from the students must be such as not only to defray
the expendittire of running the institution but also for improvement, expan-
G sion, diversification and growth. In such institutions, rhe quantum of the
fees to be charged should. be left to the concerned institutions. The
Government should have to say in the matter. So far as the court i'
concerned, it is not possible for it, in the very nature of things, to go into
this issue. The needs of each educational institution may be different. The
:H standard of education imparted and the facilities provided may be different
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.) 663

from institution to institution. May be, the Govennent or the Court may A
insist that as a condition for running such institution, a reasonable number
of seats should be allotted to students purely on merit, who shall be asked
to pay only such fees as is charged in similar Governmental institutions. If
this is done - to which the petitioners have no objection - it will not only
meet the needs of education of those who have the capacity to pay but it
B
will also meet the needs of other meritorious students who are not able to
obtain admission in the Governmental institutions and are also not in a
position to pay the fees normally charged such private institutions. Several
facts and figures are furnished to us to show bow in each State these private
educational institutions are providing a large number of "free seats" to the
nominees of the Government. It is pointed out that all these students would C
not have had an opportunity of studying the course of their choice but for
the existence of these private educational institutions.

(e) Moliini Jain's case was not right in saying, in the above situation,
··~
that charging of any amount, by whatever name it is called, over and above D
the fee charged by the Government in its own colleges, must be described
as capitation fee. Saying so amounts to imposing an impos~ible condition.
It is simply not possibly for the private educational institutions to survive
if they are compelled to charge only that fee as is charged in Governmental
institutions. The cost of educating an engineering or a medical graduate is E
very high. All that cost is borne by the State in Governmental colleges but
the State does not subsidise the private educational institutions. The private
educational institutions have to find their own finances and that can come
only from the students.

F
(t) Even if the right to establish an educational institution is not trade
or business within the meaning of Article 19(1)(g), it is certainly an
'occupation' within the meaning of the said clause. Indeed, the use of the
four expressions - profession, occupation, trade or business - in Article
19(1)(g) was meant to cover the entire field of human activity. In such a
situation, it is not necessary for the petitioners to pinpoint to which G
particular expression does their activity relate. It is enough to say that the
petitioners do have the right to establish private educational institutions -
~" at any rate, self-financing/cost-based private educational instituions. This
right can be restricted only by a law as contemplated by clause (6) of
Article 19. H
664 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.C.R.

A (g) The right to establish and administer an educational institution
(by a member of the majority community, religion or linguistic) arises by .-1.
necessary implication from Article 30. The Constitution could not have
intended to confine the said right only to minorities and deprive the
majority communities therefrom.

B
{h) The Government or the University cannot insist of stipulate as a
condition of recognition/affiliation that the private educational institutions
should admit students exclusively on merit. It has been well recognised by ........
this court that one who pays for the education is also entitled to stipulate
the manner in which he well admit studenis,. There is no reason why such
c a right should not be recognised in the case of the private educational
institutions. Moreover, there may be several kinds of private educational
institutions; they may be established for achieving certain specified pur-
-
poses. For example, medical or engineering college may be established to
cater to the needs of a particular region or a district. Similarly, another
educational institution may have been established by members of a par- A.
D
ticular community to educate their own children. The Gulburga Medical
College m the State of Karnataka, it is pointed out, is established to meet
the educational needs in the field of medicine to the students belong to
Gulburga, Raichur and Bidar districts, formerly included within the
Nizam's dominions and which were included in the State of Karnataka on
E the reorganisations of States. Similarly, the Kempe Gowda Medical College ,......,
in Karnataka, it is submitted, has been established by members of Vok-
kaliga community. Their wishes and objectives have to be respected. There
may be yet another institution which" may have been established with the
aid of a large donation made by a charitable-minded person e.g., An-
F namalai University in Tamil Nadu. If such University stipulates that mem-
bers of the founder's family or their nominees will be admitted every year
to the extent of a certain percentage, no fault can be found therewith.

(i) By virtue of mere recognition and/or affiliation these private
educational institutions do not become instrumentalities of the State within
G the meaning of Article U of the Constitution. The concept of 'State action'
cannot be extended to these colleges so as to subject them to the discipline
of Part Ill. It may be a different matter if the institution is in receipt of any
aid, partially and wholly, from the State. In such a situation, the command
of Article 29{2) comes into play but even that does not oblige the institution
H to admit the students exclusively on the basis of merit - but only not to
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 665

deny admission to anyone any of the grounds mentioned therein. A
52. On the other hand, it is contended by the learned counsel for the
respondents as also by the learned counsel for the India Medical Council
alid All India Council for Technical Education that: (a) imparting of
education has always been recognised in this country from times im-
memorial as the religious duty. Both Hinduism and Islam treated it as such. B
It has also been recognised as a charitable object. But never has it been
recognised as a trade or business. It is a mission, not a trade. Commer-
cialisation of education has always been looked upon with dis-favour in this
country. As far back as in 1956, the Parliament expressed its intention by
enacting the University Grants Commission Act which specified the c
prevention of commercialisation of education as one of the duties of the
University Grants Commission. The same intention .has been expressed by
several enactments made by the Parliament and State Legislatures since
then.

--1- (b) Imparting of education is the most important function of the D
State. This duty may be discharged by the State directly or through the
instrumentality of private educational institutions. But when the State
permits a private body or an individual to perform the said function it is
its duty to ensure that no one gets an admission or an advantage on account
of his economic power to the detriment of a more meritorious candidate. E

( c) The very concept of collecting the cost of the education - that is
what the concept of cost-based or self-financing educational institutions
means - is morally abhorrent and is opposed to public policy. A capitation
fee does not cease to be a capitation fee just because it is called cost-based
education or by cal~ng the institution concerned as a self-fmancing institu- F
tion. These expressions are but a cover - a mere pretence - for collecting
/
capitation fee. It is nothing but exploitation. It is an elitist concept basically
opposed to the constitutional philosophy, By allowing such education, two
classes will come into being. The concept suffers from class bias.

( d) If, for any reason, it is held that a citizen or a person has a right G
to establish an educational institution, the said right does not carry with it
the right to recognition or the right to affiliation, as the case may be. It has
)'-- been repeatedly held by this court that even a minority educational institu-
tion has no fundamental right to recognition or affiliation. If so, no such
right can be envisaged in the case of majority community or in the case H
666 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A individuals or persons. Once this is so, it is open to the State or the
University according recognition or affiliation to impose such conditions as
they think appropriate in the interest of fairness, merit, maintenance of
standards of education and so on. In short, it is open to the Government
or the University to make it a condition of recognition/affiliation that the
admission of students, in whichever category it may be, shall be on the basis
B of merit and merit alone. The institutions obtaining recognition/affiliation
will be bound by such condition and any departure therefrom renders the
recognition/affiliation liable to be withdrawn.

(e) Even if the Government or the University does not expressly
C impose such a condition, such condition is implicit by virtue of the fact that
in such a situation, the activity of the private educational institution is liable
to be termed as 'State action'. The fact that these institutions perform an
important public function coupled with the fact that their activity is closely
inter-twined with governmental activity, characterises their action as 'State
action'. At the minimum, the requirement would be to act fairly in the
D matter of admission of students and probably in the matter of recruitment·
and treatment of its employees as well. These institutions are further bound
not to charge any fee or amount over and above what is charged in similiar
governmental institutionas. If they need finances, they must find them
through donations or with the help of religious or charitable organisations.
E They cannot also say that they will first collect capitation fees and with that
money, they will establish an institution. At the worst, only the bare running
charges can be charged from the students. The capital cost cannot be
charged from them.

53. Before we express ourselves upon the rival contentions urged by
F the parties, it would be appropriate to notice the relevant statutory
provisions:

UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION ACT:

54. The University Grants Commission Act was enacted by the
G Parliament in 1956 to provided for the cordination and determination of
standards in Universities and for that purpose to establish a University
Grants Commission. Chapter III deals with the powers and functions of
the Commission. Section 12 empowers the Commission to take, in consult- ,~
ation with the Universities and other concerned bodies, all such steps as it
H may think fit for the promotion and cordination of University education
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 667

and for the determination and maintenance of standards of teaching, A
examination and research in the Universities. Section 12-A is relevant for
:>-. our purposes. Clause (a) in Sub-section (1) defines the expression
'affiliation'. It reads:

" 'Affiliation' together with its grammatical variations, in-
cludes in relation to a college, recognition or such college, B
association of such college with, and admission of such ·
college to the privileges of a University."

Clause (b) defines the expression 'college' in the following words:

j
" 'College' means anyinstitution whether known as such or c
by any other name which provides for a course of study for
-- obtaining any qualification from a University and which in
accordance with the rules and regulations of such Univer-
sity is recognised as competent to provide for such course
-.J___
of study and present students undergoing such course of D
study for the examination for the award of such qualifica-
tion."

Sub-secton (2) empowers the Commission inter alia to regulate the
fee chargeable in constituent and affiliated colleges, if such a course is
found to be necessary to ensure that "no candidate secures admission to E
such course of study by reason of economic power and thereby prevents a
more meritorious candidate from securing admission to such course of
study." It would be appropriate to set out Sub-section (2) in its entirety. It
reads:
F
"Without prejudice to the generality of the provisions of
Section if, having regard to,
-~
(a) the nature of any course of study for obtaining any
qualification from any University,
G
(b) the types of activities in which persons obtaining such
qualifieation are likely to be engaged on the basis of
such qualification,
,._
(
(c) the minimum standards which a person possessing
such qualification should be able to maintain in his H
668 SUPREME COURTREPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A work relating to such activities and the consequent
need for ensuring, so far as may be, that no candidate
secures admission to such course of study by reason
of economic power and thereby prevents a more
meritorious candidate from securing admission to such
· course of study; and
B
( d) all other relevant factors,

the Commission is satisfied that it is necessary so to do in
the public interest, it may, after consultation with the
c University or Universities concerned, specify the regula-
tions the matters in respect of which fees may be charged,
and the scale of fees in accordance with which fees shall
be charged in respect of those matters on and from such
-
date as may be specified in the regulations in this behalf,
by any college proViding for such course of study from or
D in relation to any student in connection with his admission
to and prosecution of such course of study:

Provided that different matters and different scales of fees
may be so specified in relation to different Universities or
different classes of colleges or different areas.'
E
Sub-Section (3) then says that where regulations of the nature
referred to in sub-section (2) hav~ been made, no college shall levy or
charge fees in excess of what is specified. Sub-section (4) provides the
consequence of violation by any college of such regulations. Sub-section
F (5) says that violation shall also mean dis-affiliation. Section 14 prescribes
the consequences of failure of Universities to comply with the recommen-
dations of the Commission. It includes withholding of funds. Sub-section
(1) of Section tl. which occurs in Chapter IV dedares that "the right of
conferring or granting degree ~hall be exercised only by a University
established or incorporated by or under a Central Act, a provincial Act or
G a State Act or an institution deemed to be a University under S1>ction 3 or
an institution specially empowered by an Act of Parliament to confer or
grant degrees." Sub-section (2) emphatically declares that "save as provided
in Sub-section (1), no person or authority shall confer or grant or hold
himself or itself out as entitled to confer or grant any degree.' Sub-section
H (3) defines the expression 'degree'. It means 'any such degree as may, with
-(

UNNJ KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.) 669

the previous approval of the Central Government, by specified in this A
behalf by the ComDiission by notification in the official gazette." S~on 23
';.. prohibits the use of the word 'University' in the name of any institution
other than a University established or incorporated under an enactment or
a deemed University. Section 24 provides for penalties for violation of
Sections 22 and 23. Section 25 confers the rule making power upon the
B
Central Government while Section 26 confers the regulation making power
upon the Commission.

;_ INDIAN MEDICAL COUNCIL ACT:
''
55. The Indian Medical Council Act, 1956 was enacted by the par- c
liament to provide for the reconstitution of the Medical .Council of India
and the maintenance of a medical register for India and for matters
connected therewith. The expression 'recognised medical qualification' is
defined in clause (h) of Section 2 to mean 'any.of the medical qualifications
.. "'-· included in the schedules.' The expression 'approved institution' has been D
defined in clause (a) to mean 'a hospital, health centre or every such
institution recognised by a University as an institution in which a person
may undergo training, if any, required by bis course of study before the
award of any medical qualification to him.' Section 11 declares that the

- ~'
medical qualifications granted by any University or medical institution in
India which are included in the first schedule to the Act shall be recognised
medical qualifications for the purposes of the Act. It also provides the
proeedure for any University or Medical institution applying to the Central
Government for recognising new .or other qualifications. Section 13 says
E

that the medical qualifications granted by medical institutions in India not
included in the First Schedule but included in Part I of the Third Schedule F
shall also be recognised medical qualifications for the purposes of the Act.
Section 19 provides for withdrawal of recognition in cases where the
.>..
Council finds lowering of standards of proficiency, knowledge or skill.
Section 21 provides for the maintenance of an Indian Medical ·Register.
Section 27 says that a person registered in' the Indian Medical Council
Register shall be entitled to practice as a medical practitioner in any part G
of India and to recover in due course of law in respect of such practice
any expenses, charges or fees to which he is entitled. Section 32 confers
~ the rule making power upon the Government while Section 33 confers the
(
regulation making power upon the Council. The First Schedule mentions
the names of the Universites and the recognised medical qualifications H
670 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A awarded by them. Same is done by Part I of the Third Schedule.

ALL INDIA COUNCIL FOR TECHNICAL EDUCATION ACT,
1987:

56. This Act has been made by the Parliament for the establishment
B of the 'All India Council for Technical Education' with a view to the proper
planning and cordinated development of the technical education system
throughout the country, promotion of qualitative improvement of such
education and other allied matters. Section 3 of the Act provides for the
establishment cf the Council while Section 10 specifies the functions of the
C Council. Apart from directing generally that the Council shall take all such
steps as it may think fit for ensuring co-ordinated and integrated develop-
ment of technical education and maintenance of standards, the Act specifi-
cally empowers the Council, inter alia, to "Gl fix norms and guidelines for
charging tuition and other fees; (k) grant approval for starting new techni-
D cal institutions and for introduction of new cotirses or programmes in
consultation with the agencies concerned, and (n) take all necessary steps
to prevent commercialisation of technical education." It is true, there is no
express provision in the Act which says that no engineering college or any
other college or institution imparting technical education shall be estab-

E
lished except with the permission of the Council. But this may be for the
reason that such a power was intended to be exercised by the Council itself
if it thinks necessary to do so. We are of the opinion that the vast powers
conferred upon the Council by Section 10, including those specified above,
do extend to and entitle it to issue an order to the above effect. It can also
-
say that even in the existing institutions, no new course, faculty or class
F shall be opened except with its approval. It can also pass appropriate
directions to the existing institutions as well for achieving the purposes of
the Act. Such an order may indeed be necessary for a proper discharge of
the wide-ranging functions conferred upon the Council.

57. It is brought to our notice by the learned counsel appearing for
G the Council that the Council has evolved a proforma of undertaking which
should be executed by the person-in-charge of any ffistitution proposed to
be established stating inter a/ia that such institution will not only observe
the several orders and instructions issued by the Council but it shall not
charge any capitation fee from the students/guardians of the students in
H any form. The proforma further stipulates that in the event of non-com-
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. (REDDY, J.) 671

pliance of any of the orders and directions issued by the Council or the A
terms of the undertaking, it shall be open to the Council to take ap-
propriate action including withdrawal of its approval or recognition, which
automatically entails stoppage of financial grant or assistance from the
Central and State Government. It is also brought to our notice that the
Council has issued guidelines for admission to Engineering Degree and B
Engineering Diploma programmes in G.S.R. 320 dated 15th June, 1992 in
exercise of the power conferred upon it by Section 23(1) of the Act
(Section 23 of the Act confers the regulation making power upon the
Council).

STATE ENACTMENTS: c
58. As mentioned in Part I of this judgment, the States of Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and recently the state of Tamil Nadu
have all enacted legislation prohibiting the charging of capitation fee. We
-~
had also set out the Preamble to the Andhra Act which Preamble is to be
found alomst in every such enactment. We had referred to the AP. D
Education Act, 1982 as well which provides that no educatonal institution
shall be established in the State except with the permission of the com-
petent authority

INDIAN MEDICAL COUNCIL (AMENDMENT) ORDINANCE,
1992:
E

59. The last of the statutory provisions to be noticed is of great
relevance herein viz., the Indian Medical Council (Amendment) Or-
dinance, 1992 being Ordinance No. 13 of 1992 issued by the President of.
India on 27th August, 1992. By this Ordinance, Section 10-A to 10-C have F
been added besides amending Section 33. Section 10-A provides that
notwithstanding anything contained in the Indian Medical Council Act or
any other law for the time being in force, no medical college shall be
established nor any new or higher course of study or training opened in an
existing institution nor shall it increase its admission capacity in any course G
of study or training, except with the previous permission of the Central
Government obtained in accordance with the provisions of the said section.
The section prescribes the procedure for submitting the application, the
matters which the Central Government shall take into account while con-
sidering the said application, the obligatory consultation with the Council
and the manner in which the application shall be disposed of. It also H
~

672 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993] 1 S.C.R.

A provides the matters which the Council should take into consideration
while making its recommendation to the Central Government. Suffice it to
mention that the several matters which the Council and the Central
~
Government are directed to take into consideration are designed to ensure
that a properly equipped institution is in place before it is permitted to ,,
I'
impart medical education. Section 10-B provides for non-recognition of
B medical qualifications awarded by institutions which have been established
without the previous permission of the Central Government or by an
institution which violates any of the conditions in Section 10-A. Section
10-C provides that if any person has established a medical college or has --"-
opened a new or higher course of study in an existing college, he shall,
c within one year from the date of the commencement of the Ordinance,
seek permission of the Central Government in accordance with Section
10-A.

GROUND REALITY;
D
,.. '

60. Notwithstanding the fact that education is the second highest
sector of budgeted expenditure after the Defence, the outlay on education
is woefully inadequate io the needs of the people. Whereas many other
countries spend six to eight per cent of theif Gross National Product" on
education, our expenditure on education is only three per cent of the Gross
E National Product. Seventy five to eight per cent of the expenditure goes in
......,
paying the salaries of the teachers and other connected staff. These are the
statements made in the Government of India publication "Challenge of
Education - a policy perspective" referred to hereinbefore. Even so, on
account of lack of proper supervision, lack of self-discipline and commit!-
F ment, the quality and standard of instruction in most of the Government
schools and colleges - except the profeesional colleges - is woeful. This has
provided an occasion and an opportunity to private educational institutions
to fill the void, both in terms of meeting the need and more particularly in
the matter of quality of instruction. Because, the State is in no position to
devote more resources and also because the need is constantly growing, it
G is not possible to do without private educational institutions. In this context,
it is appropriate - nay, necessary, to notice the stand of the Government
of India in this behalf. It is thus: the Central Government does not have _,._
the resources to undertake any additional financial responsibility for medi-
cal or technical education; it is unable to aid any private educational
H institution financially at a level higher than at present; therefore the policy
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 673

of the Central Government is to involve private and voluntary efforts in the A
eduction sector in conformity with accepted norms and goals; however, the
private educational institutions cannot be compelled to charge only that fee
as is charged in Governmental institutions; in 1986, the Central Govern-
ment has evolved the 'New Education Policy' - according to it, 'in the
interests of maintaining the standards and for several other valid reasons, B
the commercialisation of technical and professional education will be
curbed. An alternative system will be devised to involve private and volun-
tary effort in this section of education, in conformity with accepted norms
and goals.' (vide paras 6-20); the amendments proposed to I.M.C. Act,
1956 in 1987 have not materialised so fat; so far as engineering colleges are
concerned, permission is being granted by the A.1.C.T.E. subject to the C
condition that they do not collect any capitation fee; according to the
guidelines issued by the A.l.C.T.E., the technical colleges will be permitted
a
to recover 'only graded percentage of the average cost of student educa-
tion, depending on whether the institution is Government-funded, Govern-
ment-aided or un-aided.' (According to the these guidelines, it is stated, D
~..
the students will be asked to pay 20% of the cost in Government-funded
institutions, 30-35% in Government-aided and 70% in un-aided institu-
tions). It is fmally submitted that:

'(a) Conferring unconditional and unqualified right to education at
all levels to every citizen involving a consitutional obligation on the State E
to establish educational institutions either directly or through State agen-
cies is not warrante.d by the Constitution besides being unrealistic and
impractical.

(b) When the Government grants recognition to private educational
institutions it does not create an agency to fulfil its obligations under the F
Constitution and there is no scope to import the concept of agency in such
a situation.

(c) The principles laid down in Mohini Jain's case do require recon-
sideration.
G
(d) It would be unrealistic and unwise to discourage private initiative
.in providing educational facilities particularly for higher education. The
private sector should be involved and indeed encouraged to aljgDlent the
much needed resources in the field of education, thereby making as much
progress as possible in achieving the Constitutional goals in this respect. H·
674 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993] 1 S.C.R.

A (e) At the same time, regulatory controls have to be continued and
strengthened in order to prevent private educational insitutions from com-
mercialising education. r --(,.

(t) Regulatory measures should be maintained and strengthened so
as to ensure that private educational institutions maintain minimum stand-
B ards and facilities.

(g) Admissions within all groups and categories should be based on
merit. There may be reservation of seats in favour of the weaker sections
of the society and other groups which deserve special treatment. The norms
C for admission should be pre-determined and transparent."

The stand of the State Governments of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu is no different. -
61. The hard reality that emerges is that private educational insitu-
D tions are a necessity in the present day context. It is not possible to do
without them because the Governments are in no position to meet the
demand - particularly in the sector of medical and technical education
which call for substaotial outlays. While education is one of the most
important functions of the Indian State it has no monopoly therein. Private
E educaitonal institutions - including minority educational institutions - too
have a role to play.

62. Private educational institutions may be aided as well as un-aided.
Aid given by the Government may be cent per cent or partial. So far as
aided institutions are concerned, it is evident, they have to abide by all the
F rules and regulations as may be framed by the Government and/or recog-
nising/affiliating authorities in the matter of recruitment of teachers and
staff, their conditions of service, syllabus, staodard of teaching and so on.
In particular, in the matter of admission of students, they have to follow
the rule of merit and merit alone - subject to aoy reservations made under
Article 15. They shall not be entitled to charge any fees higher than what
G is charged in Governmental institutions for similar courses. These are and
shall be understood to be the conditions of grant of aid. The reason is simple:
public funds, when given as grant - and not as loan - carry the public
character whereever they go; public funds cannot be donated for private
purposes. The element of public character necessarily mean.. a fair conduct
H in all respects consistent with the constitutional mandate of Article 14 and
{
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF A.P. (REDDY, J.] 675

15. All the Governments and other authorities in charge of granting aid to A
educational institutions shall expressly provide for such conditions (among
others), if not already provided, and shall ensure compliance with the same.
Again aid may take several forms. For example, a medical college does
necessarily require a hospital. We are told that for a 100 seat medical
college, there must be a fully equipped 700-bed hospital. Then alone, the
B
medical college can be allowed to function. A private medical college may
not have or may not establish a hospital of its own. It may request the
Government and the Government may permit it to avail of the services of
)._ a Government hospital for the purpose of the college free of charge. This
would also be a form of aid and the conditions aforesaid have to be
imposed - may be with some relaxation in the matter of fees chargeable - C
and observed. The Government (Central and State) and all other
authorities granting aid shall impose such conditions forthwith, if not
already imposed. These conditions shall apply to existing as well as
proposed private educational institutions.
' -J... D
63. So far as un-aided institutions are concerned, it is obvious that
they cannot be compelled to charge the same fee as is charged in
Governmental institutions. 1f they do so voluntarily, it is perfectly welcome
but they cannot be compelled to do so, for the simple reason that they have
to meet the cost of imparting education from their own resources - and the
main source, apart from donations/charities, if any, can only be the fees E
collected from the students. It is here that the concepts of 'self-financing
educational institutions' and 'cost-based educational institutions' come in.
This situation presents several difficult problems. How does one determine
the 'cost of education' and how and by whom can it be regulated? The cost
of education may very, even within the same faculty, from institution to f
insititution. The facilities provided, equipment, infrastructure, standard
and quality of education obtaining may vary from institution to institution.
The court cannot certainly do this. It must be done by Government ·or
University or such other authority as may be designated in that behalf.
Even so, some questions do arise - whether cost-based education only
means running charges or can it take in capital outlay? Who pays or who G
can be made to pay for establishment, expansion and irnprovement/dever-
sification of a private educational institutions? Can an individual or body
of persons first collect amounts (by whatever name called) from the
intending students and with those monies establish an institution - an
activity similar to builders of apartments in the cities? How much should H
676 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993] 1 S.CR.

A the students coming in later years pay? Who should work out the
economics of each institution? Any solution evo)ved has to take into
account all these variable factors. But one thing is clear: commercialisation
of education cannot and should not be permitted. The Parliament as well as
State Legislatures have expressed this intention in unmistakable terms.
Both in the light of our tradition and from the stand-point of interest of
B general public, commercialisation is positively harmful; it is opposed to
public policy. As we shall presently point out, this is one of the reasons for
holding that imparting education cannot be trade, business or profession.
The question is how to encourage private educational institutions without
a/lowing them to commercialise the education? This is the troublesome
c question facing the society, the government and the courts today. But
before we proceed to evolve a scheme to meet this problem, it is necessary
to answer a few other questions raised before us.

RIGHT TO ESTABLISH AN EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION:

D 64. Article 19(1)(g) of the Constitution declares that all citizens of
this country shall have the right "to practice any profession, or to carry on
any occupation, trade on business". Clause (6) of Article 19, however, says:

'Nothing in sub-clause (g) of the said clause shall affect the
operation of any existing law in so far as it imposes or
E
prevents the State from making any law imposing, in the
interests of the general public, reasonable restrictions on
the exe1 cise of the right conferred by the said clause and,
in particular, nothing in the said sub-clause shall affect the
operation of any existing law in so far as it relates to or
F prevents the State from making any law relating to:

(i) the professional or technical qualifications neces-
sary for practising any profession or carrying on any oc-
cupation, trade or business, or
G (ii) carrying on by the State, or by a corporation owned
or controlled by the State or any trade, business, industry
or service whether to the exclusion, complete or partial,
of citizens or otherwise."

H While we do not with to express ·any opinion on the question whether
{
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP.I 677

the right to establish an educational institution bn-0e said toclie' carrying A
' _)... on any "occupation" within the meaning of Article 19(1)(g), - perhaps, it is
- we are certainly of the opinion that such activity can neither be a trade
or business nor can it be a profession within the meaning of Article
19(1)(g). Trade or business normally connotes an activity carried on with
a profit motive. (Education has never been commerce in this country. B
Making it one is opposed to the ethos, tradition and sensibilities of this
nation. The argument to the contrary has an unholy ring to it. Imparting
of education has never been treated as a trade or business in this country
since times inunemorial. It has been treated as a religious duty. It has been
treated as a charitable activity) But never as trade or business. We agree c
with Gajendragadkar, J. That "education in its true aspect is more a mission
and a vocation rather than a profession or trade or business, however wide
may be the denotation of the two latter words...... "(See University of Delhi
[1961) 1 SCR 703). The Parliament too has manifested its intention
repeatedly (by enacting the U.G.C. Act, I.M.C. Act and A.I.C.T.E. Act)
_.i_ D
that commercialisation· of education is not permissible and that no person
shall be allowed to steal a march over a more meritorious candidate
because of his economic power. The very same intention is expressed by
the Legislatures of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil
Nadu in the Preamble to their respective enactments prohibiting charging
E
of capitation fee.

65. We are, therefore, of the opiniori, adopting the line of reasoning
in State of Bombay v. R.M.D.C., 1957 S.C.R. 874, that imparting education
cannot be treated as a trade or business. Education cannot be allowed to
be converted into commerce nor can the petitioners seek to obtiiin the said F
result by relying upon the wider meaning of "occupation''. The content of
the expression "occupation" has to be ascertained keeping in mind the fact

- ~ that clause (g) employs all the four expressions viz., profession, occnpation,
trade and business. Their fields may overlap, but each of them does
certainly have a content of its own, distinct from the others. Be that as it
may, one thing is clear - imparting of education is not and cannot be
G

allowed to become commerce. A law, existing or future, ensuring against
it would be a valid measure within the meaning of clause (6) of Article 19.
~·- We cannot, therefore, agree with the contrary proposition enunciated in
1968 Bombay 91, 1984 A.P. 251 and 1986 Karnataka 119. H
678 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A 66. The learned counsel for the petitioners relied upon certain
decisions in support of their contention that right to establish an educa-
tional institution flows from Article 19(1)(g). The first is in Bharat Sevash-
ram Sangh v. State of Gujara~ [1986] 3 S.C.R. 602, a decision of a Bench
consisting <if E.S. Venkataramiah and Ranganath Misra, JJ. At page 609,
B while dealing with Section 33 of the Gujarat Secondary Education Act
enpowering the Government to take over an educational institution in
certain situations for a period not exceeding five years, the learned Judges
observed that "the said provision is introduced in the interest of the general
public and does not in any way affect prejudically the fundamental right of
C the management guaranteed under Article 19(1)(g) of the Constitution."
Actually, the issue now before us was not raised or considered in the said
decision. Moreover, the decision does not say whether it is a profession,
occupation, trade or business.

Reliance is then placed upon the Seven Judge Bench decision in
D Bangalore Water Supply and Sewerage Board v. Rajappa, (1978] 3 S.C.R. ;...
'lfJ7. Krishna Iyer, J. dealing with the meaning of the expression 'industry"
in l.D. Act observed that even educational institutions would fall within the
purview of "Industry''. We do not think the said observation in a different
context has any application here.
E
So far as the other decision in State of Maharashtra v. Lok Shikshan
Swistha, (1971] Suppl. S.C.R. 879 is concerned, all that the court held there
was that is view of the operation of emergency, Article 19 is not available
to the petitioners seeking to establish an educational institution. Article 358
was held to be a bar. But the decision does not say that such a right does
F
inhere in the petitioners.

67. We are also of the opinion that the said activity cannot be called
a 'profession' within the meaning of Article 19(1)(,g). It is significant to
notice the words 11 to practice any profession11 • Evidently, the reference ts to
G such professions as may be practised by citizens i.e., individuals. (See
N.U.C. Employees v. Industrial Tribuna~ A.l.R. 1962 S.C. 1080 at 1085).
Establishing educational institutions can by no stretch of imagination be
treated as "practising any profession". Teaching may be a profession but . --I
establishing an institution employing teaching and non-teaching staff,
H procuring the necessary infrastructure for running a school or college is
{
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 679

not 'practising profession'. It may be anything but not practising a profes- A
sion. We must make it clear that we have not gone into the precise meaning
an content of the expressions profession, occupation, trade or business for
the reason that it is not necessary for us to do so .in view of the approach
we are adopting hereinafter, which would be evident from the succeeding
paragraphs. Our main concern in the entire preceding discussion is only to B
establish that the activity of establishing and/or running an educational
institution cannot be a matter of commerce.

68. For the purpose of these cases, we shall proceed on the assump-
tion that a person or body of persons has a right to establish an educational
institution in this country. But this right, we must make it clear, is not an c
absolute one. It is subject to such law as may be made by the State in the
interest of general public.

69. We must, however, make it clear, and which is of crucial impor-
tance herein, that the right to establish an educationcal institution does not D
cany with it the right to recognition or the right to affiliation. In St. Xaviers
College v. Gujarat, (1975] 1 S.C.R. 173 it has been held uniformly by all the
nine learned Judges that there is no fundan1ental right to affiliation. Ray,
C.J., stated that this has been "the consistent view of this court." They also
recognised that recognition or affiliation is essentiaJ for a meaningful E
exercise of the right to establish and administer educational institutions.
Recognition may be granted either by the Government or any other
authority or body empowered to accord recognition. Similarly, affiliation
may be granted either by the University or any other academ;c or other
body empowered to grant affiliation to other educational institutions. In
other words, it is open to a person to establish an educational institution, F
admit students, impart education, conduct examination and award certifi-
cates to them. But he, or the educational institution has no right to insist
that the certificates or degree (if they can be called as such) awarded by
such institutio.1 should be recognised by the State - much less have they
the right to say that the students trained by the institution should be G
admitted to examinations conducted by the University or by the Govern-
ment or any other authority, as the case may be. The institution has to seek
such recognition or affiliation from the appropriate agency. Grant of
recognition and/or affilliation is not a matter of course nor is it a formality.
Admission to the privileges of a University is a power to be exercised with H
680 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A great care, keeping in view the interest of the general ~ublic and the nation. .
It is a matter of substantial significance - the very life-blood of a private
educational institution. Ordinarily speaking, no educational institution can
run or survive unless it is recognised by the Government or the appropriate
authority and/or is affiliated to one or the other Universities in the country.
Unless it is recognis~d anil!or affiliated as stated above, it's certificates will
B
be of no use. No one would join such educational insitution. As a matter
of fact, by virtue of the provisions of the U.G.C. Act, noticed hereinabove,
no educational institution in this country except a University is entitled t3
award degrees. It is for this reason that all the private educational institu-
tions seek recognition and/or affiliation with a view to enable them to send
c the students trained by them to appear at the examinations conducted by
the Government/University. The idea is that if such .students pass the said
examination, the Government/University will award its degree/diploma/cer-
tificate to them. These educational institutions follow the syllabus
prescribed by the Government/University, have the same courses of study,
D follow the same method of leaching and training. They do not award their
own degrees/qualifications. They prepare their students for Univer-
sity/Government examinations, request the University/Government to per-
mit them tc appear at the examinaitons conducted by them and to award
the appropriate degrees to them . Clearly and indubitably, the
E recongnised/affiliated private educational institutions, supplement the
function performed by the institutions of the State. Theirs is not an inde-
pendent activitr but one_closdy alli~d to and supplementa! to th7 activitx
of the State. In the abme circumstances, it is idle to contend that imparting
of education is a business like any other business or that it is an activity
F ·akin to any other activity like building of roads, bridges etc. In short, the
position is this: No educational institution except an University can award
degrees (Sections 22 and 23 of the U.G.C. Act). The private educational
institutions cannot award their own degrees. Eve.I if they award any
certificates or other testimonials they have no practical value inasmuch as
G they are net good for obtaining any employment under the State or for
admission into higher courses of study. The private educational institutions
merely supplement the effort of the State in educating the people, as
explained above. It is not an independent activity. It is an activity sup-
plemental to the principal activity carried on by the State. No private
education institution can survive or subsist without recognition and/or
H
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 681

affiliation. The bodies which grant recognition and/or affiliation are the A
authorities of the State. Jn such a situation, it is obligatory - in the interest
'>
of general public - upon the authority granting recognition or affiliation to
insist upon such conditions as are appropriate to ensure not only education
of requisite standard but also fairness and equal treatment in the matter
of admission of students. Since the recognising/affiliating authority is the · B
'State' it is under. an obligation to impose such conditions as part of its duty
enjoined upo~ it by Article 14 of the Constitution. It cannot allow itself or
its power and privilage to be used unfairly. The incidents attaching to the
main activity attach to supplemental activity as well. Affiliation/recognition
is not there for anybody to get it gratis or unconditionally. In our opinion,
no Government, authority or University is justified or is entitled to grant
c
recognition/affiliation without imposing such conditions. Doing so would
~mo,;nt to abdicating its obligations enjoined upon it by Part III; its activity
is bound to be characterised as unconstitutional and illegal. To reiterate,.
what applies to the main activity applies equally to suppleme11tal activity. The
State cannot claim immunity from the obligations arising from Articles 14 D
and 15. If so, it cannot confer such immunity upon its affiliates. Accord-
ingly, we have evolved - with the help of the counsel appear~ng before us
and keeping in view the positive features of the several Central and State
enactments referrred to hereinbefore - the following scheme which every
authority granting_ recognition/affiliation shall impose upon the institutions E
seeking such recognition/affiliation.

The idea behind the scheme is to eliminate discretion in the manage-
ment altogether in the matter of admission. It is the discretion in the matter
of admission that is at the root of the several ills complained of. It is the F
discretion that has mainly led to the commercialisation of education.
'Capitation fee' means charging or collecting amount beyond what is
permitted by law; all the Acts have defined this expression in this sense.
We must strive to bring about a .situation where there is no room or
occasion for the management or anyone on its behalf to demand or collect
any amount beyond what is permitted. We must clarify that charging the G
permitted fees by the private educational institutions - which is bound to
be higher than the fees charged in similar governmental institutions by itself
cannot be characterised as capitation fees. This is the policy underlying all
the four States enactments prohibition capitation fees. All of them recog-
nise the necessity of charging higher fees by private educational institutions. H
682 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.C.R.

A They seek to regulate the fees that can be charged by them - which may
be called permitted fees - and to bar them from collecting anything other
than the permitted fees, which is what 'Capitation fees' means. Our attempt
in evolving the following scheme precisely is to given effect to the said
legislative policy. It would be highly desirable if this Scheme is given a
B . statutory shape by incorporating it in the Rules that may be framed under
these enactments.

SCHEME

70. The scheme evolved herewith is in the nature of guidelines which
the appropriate Governments and recognising and affiliating authorities
c shall impose and implement in addition to such other conditions and stipula-
tions as they may think appropriate as conditions for grant of permission,
grant of recognition or grant of affiliation, as the case may be. We are
-
confining the scheme - for the present - only to 'professional colleges.'

D The expression 'professional colleges' in this scheme includes:

(i) medical colleges, dental colleges and other institutions
and colleges imparting Nursing, Pharmacy and other cour-
ses allied to Medicine, established and/or run by private
education institutions,
E
(ii) colleges of engineering and colleges and institutions
imparting technical education including electronics, com-
puter sciences, established and/or run by private educa-
tional institutions, and
F (iii) such other colleges to which this scheme is made
applicable by the Government, recognising and/or affiliat-
ing authority."

The expression 11 appropriate authorityn means the Government,
G University or other authority as is competent to grant permission to estab-
lish or to grant recognition to a professional college.

The expression 'competent authority' in this scheme means the
Government/University or other authority, as may be designated by the
Government/University or by law, as is competent to allot students for
H admission to various professional colleges in the given State. ,
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.) 683

It is made clear that only those institutions which seek permission to A
establish and/or recognition and/or affiliation from the appropriate
authority shall alone be made bound by this scheme. This scheme is not
applicable to colleges run by Government or to University colleges. In
short, the scheme hereinafter mentioned shall be made a condition of
pe,mission, recognition or affiliation, as the case may be. For each of them B
viz., ~rant of permission, grant of recognition, grant of affiliation, these
conditions shall necessarily be imposed, in addition to such other condi-
tions as the appropriate authority may think appropriate. No Private eduea-
).. tional institutaion shall be allowed to send its students to appear for an
examination held by auy Government or other body constituted by it or
under any law or to any examination held by any University unless the C
concerned institution and the relevant course of study is recognised by the
appropriate authority and/or is afftliated to the appropriate University, as
the case may be.

(1) A professional college shall be permitted to be established and/or D
administered only by a Society registered under the Societies Registration
Act, 1860 (or the corresponding Act, if any, in force in a given State), or
by a Public Trust, religious or charitable, registered under the Trusts Act,
Wakfs Act (or the correspondmg legislation, if any, e.g., Tamil Nadu
Religious and Charitable Endowments Act and A.P. Religious and
Charitable Endowments Act). No individual, firm, company or other body E
of individuals, by whatever appellation called - except those mentioned
above - will be permitted to establish and/or administer a professional
college. All the existing professional colleges which do not conforrn to the
above norm shall be directed to take appropriate steps to comply with the
same within a period of six months from today. In default whereof, recog- F
nition/afftliation accorded shall stand withdrawn. (In this connection refer-
ence may be had to Rule 86(2) of Maharashtra Grant-in-aid code (referred
to in State of Maharashtra v. Lok Shikshan Sanstha, (1971) Suppl. S.C.R.
879 which provided that schools which are not registered under the
Societies Registration Act, shall not be eligible for grant. Grant of recog-
nition and afftliation is no less significance). G

(2) Atleast, 50% of the seats in every professional college shall be
filled by the nominees of the Government or University, as the case may
be, hereinafter referred to as "free seats''. These students shall be selected
on the basis of merit determined on the basis of a common entrance H
">-
684 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993] 1 S.C.R. )'

A examination where it is held or in the absence of an entrance examination,
by such criteria as may be determined by the competent authority or the __)_
appropriate to authority, as the case may be. It is, however, desirable and
appropriate have a common entrance exam for regulating admissions to
these colleges/institutions, as is done in the State of Andhra Pradesh. The
remaining 50% seats (payment seats) shall be filled by those candidates
B
who are prepared to pay the fee prescribed therefor and who have com-
plied with the instructions regarding deposit and furnishing of cash
security/Bank guarantee for the balance of the amount. The allotment of
students against payment seats shall also be done on the basis of inter se
merit determined on the same basis as in the case of free seats. There shall
c be no quota reserved for the management or for any family, caste or
community which may have established such college. The criteria of ....,
eligibility and all other conditions shall be the same in respect of both free
seats and payment seats. The oniy distinction shall be the requirement of ..
higher fee by the 'payment students'. The Management of a professional
college shall not be entitled to impose or prescribe any other and further
D
eligibility criteria or condition for admission either to free seats or to
payment seats. It shall, however, be open to a profeesional college to
provide for reservation of seats for constitutionally permissible classes with
the approval of the affiliating University. Such reservations, if any, shall be
made and notified to the competent authority and the appropriate
E authority atleast one month prior to the issuance of notification calling for
applications for admission to such category of colleges. In such a ease, the
competent authority shall allot students keeping in view the reservations
provided by a college. The rule of merit shall be followed even in such
reserved categories.
F
(3) The number of seats available in the professional colleges (to
which this scheme is made applicable) shall be fixed by the appropriate
~

authority. No professional college shall be permitted to increase its strength
except under the permission or authority granted by the appropriate
authority.
G
(4) No professional college sball call for applications for admission
separately or individually. All the applications for admission to all the seats
available in such colleges shall be called for by .the competent authority
alone, along with applications for admission to Government/University
H colleges of similar nature. For example, there shall be only oqe notification
--{
'
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STAIE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 685

by the competent authority calling for applications for all the medical A
colleges in the State - and one notification for all the engineering colleges
in the State and so on. The application forms for admission shall be issued
by the competent authority (from such offices, centres and places as he
may direct). The application form shall contain a column or a separate part
wherein an applicant can indicat~ whether he wishes to be admitted against
B
a payment seat and the order of preference, up to three professional
colleges. I

(5) Each professional college shall intimate the competent authority,
the State Government and the concerned University in adv.ance the fees
chargeable for the entire course commencing that academic year. The total C
fees shall be divided into the number of years/semesters of study in that
course. In the first instance, fees only for the first year/semester shall be
collected The payment students will be, however, required to furnish either
cash security or bank gurantee for the fees payable for the remaining
years/semesters. The fees chargeable, in each professional college shall be D
subject to the ceiling prescribed by the appropriate authority or by a
competent Court. The competent authority shall issue a brochure, on
payment of appropriate charges, along with the application form for ad-
mission, giving full particulars of the courses and the number of seats
available, the names of the collegec their location and also the fees
chargeable by each professional college. The brochure will also specify the E
minimum eligibility conditions, the method of admission (whether by
entrace test or otherwise) and other relevant particulars.

(6) (a) Every State Government shall forthwith constitute a Commit-
tee to fix the ceiling on the fees chargeable by a professional college or F
class of p~ofessional colleges, as the case may be. The Committee shall
consist of a Vice-Chancellor, Secretary for Education (or such Joint
Secretary, as he may nominate) and Director, Medical Education/Director
Technical Education. The committee shall make such enquiry as it thinks
appropriate. It shall, however, give opportunity to the professional colleges
(or their association(s), if any) to place such material, as they think fit. It G
shall, however, not be bound to give any personal hearing to anyone or
follow any technical rules of law. The Committee shall fix the fee once
?- .. every three years or at such longer intervals, as it may think appropriate.

(b) It would be appropriate if the U.G.C. frames regulations under H
686 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993] l S.C.R.

A Section 12A (3) of the U.G.C. Act, regulating the fees which the affiliated
colleges, operating on no-grant-in-aid basis, are entitled to charge. The
Council for Technical Education may also consider the advisability of
issuing directions under Section 10 of the A.l.C.T.E. Act regulating the fees
that may be charged in private unaided educational institutions imparting
technical education. The Indian Medical Council and Central government
B may also consider the advisability of such regulation as a condition for
grant of permission to new medical colleges under Section 10-A and to
impose such a condition on existing colleges under Section 10-C.

(c) The several authorities mentioned in sub-paras (a) and (b) shall
C decide whether a private educational institution is entitled to charge only
that fee as is required to run the college or whether the capital cost
involved in establishing a college can also be passed on to the students and
if so, in what manner. Keeping in view the need, the interest of general
public and of the nation, a policy decision may be taken. It would be more
D appropriate if the Central Government and these several authorities )o.-·.
(U.G.C., l.M.C. and A.I.C.T.E.) cordinate their efforts and evolve a broad-
ly uniform criteria in this behalf. Until the Central Government, U.G.C.,
l.M.C. and A.l.C.T.E. issue order/regulations in this behalf, the committee
referred to in the sub-para (a) of this para shall be operative. In other
words, the working and orders of the committee shall be subject to the
E orders/regulations, issued by Central Government, U.G.C., I.M.C. or
A.l.C.T.E., as the case may be.

(d) We must hasten to add that what we have said in this clause is
merely a reiteration of the duty- nay, obligation - placed upon the Govern-
F ments of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu by
their respective legislatures - to wit, Section 7 of Andhra Pradesh Act 5 of
1983, Section 4 of Maharashtra Act 6 of 1988, Section 5 of Karnataka Act
of 1984 and Section 4 of Tamil Nadu Act 57 of 1992. Other States too may
have to have similar provisions, carrying statutory force.

G (7) Any candidate who fulfils the eligibility c011ditions would be
entitled to apply for admission. After the free seats in profe;;sional colleges
are filled up, atleast 10 days' time will be given to the candidates (students)
to opt to be admitted against payment seats. The candidates shall be
.. -\
entitled to indicate their choice for any three colleges (if available). In such
H a case, he shall comply with the deposit and cash security/Bank guarantee
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.] 687

- taking the institution charging the highest fees as the basis - within the A
said period of ten days. If he is admitted in an institution, charging less fee,
~·
the difference amount shall be refunded to him. (The cash security or Bank
guarantee shall be in favour of the competent authority, who shall transfer
the same in favour of the appropriate college if that student is admitted).

(8) The results of the entrance examination, if any, held should be B
published atleast in two leading newspapers, one in English and the other
in vernacular. The payment candidates shall be allotted to different profes-
). sional colleges on the basis of merit-cum-choice. The allotment shall be
made by the competent authority. A professional college shall be bound to
admit the students so allotted. The casual vacancies or unfilled vacancies, c
if any, shall also be filled in the same manner. The management of a
professional college shall not be permitted to admit any student other than
the one allotted by the competent authority - whether against free seat or
payment seat, as the case may be. It is made clear that even in the matter
of reserved categories, if any, the principle of inter se merit shall be
-~
followed. All allotments made shall be published in tw'l leading newspapers D
as aforesaid and on the notice boards of the respective colleges and at such
other places as the comptent authority may direct, along with the marks
obtained by each candidates in the relevant entrance test or qualifying
examination, as the case may be. No r<ofessional college shall be entitled
to ask for any other or further payment or amount, under whatever name E
~. it may be called, from any student allotted to it - whether against the free
seat or payment seat.

(9) After making the allotments, the competent authority shall also
prepare and publish a waiting list of the candidates along with the marks
obtained by them in the relevant test/examination. The said list shall be F
followed for filling up any casual vacancies or 'drop-out' vacancies arising
after the admissions are finalised. These vacancies shall be filled until such
date as may be prescribed by the competent authority. Any vacancies still
remaining after such date can be filled by the Management.
G
It is made clear that it shall be open to the appropriate authority and
the competent authority to issue such further instructions or directions, as
they may think appropriate not inconsistent with this scheme, by way of
/- elaboration and elucidation.

The scheme shall apply to and govern the admissions to professional H
688 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R

A colleges commencing from the academic year 1993-94.
We are aware that until the commencement of the current academic _--<(
year, the Andhra Pradesh was following a somewhat different pattern in
the matter of filling the seats in private unaided engineering colleges.
Though all the available seats were being filled by the allottees of the
B Convenor (State) - and the managements were not allowed to admit any
student on their own - a uniform fee was collected from all the students.
The concepts of 'free seats' and 'payment seats' were therefore not relevant
in such a situation - all were payment seats only. We cannot say that such _'"'-
a system is constitutionally not permissible. But our idea in devising this
C scheme has been to provide more opportunities to meritorious students,
who may not be able to pay the enhanced fee prescribed by the government
for such colleges. The system devised by us would mean correspondingly
more financial burden on payment students whereas in the aforesaid system
(in vogue in Andhra Pradesh) the financial burden is equally distributed
among all the students. The theoretical foundation for our method is that
D a candidate/student who is stealing a march over his compatriot on account ""- -
of his economic power should be made not only to pay for himself but also
to pay for another meritorious student. This is the social justification
behind the fifty per cent rule prescribed in clause (2) of this scheme. In
the interest of uniformity and in the light of the above social theory, we
E direct the State of Andhra Pradesh to adhere to the system derived by us.

71. In view of the above, we do not think it necessary to go into or
answer Question No. 3. In our opinion, the said question requires debate
in a greater depth and any expression of opinion thereon at this juncture
is not really warranted.
F
PARTW

VALIDITY OF SECTION 3-A OF THE ANDHRA PRADESH
EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS (REGULATION OF ADMISSION
G AND PROHIBITION OF CAPITATION FEE) ACT, 1983.

72. Section 3-A of the aforesaid Act, as introduced by the Andhra
Pradesh Amendment Act 12 of 1992, read as follows:

"Notwithstanding anything contained in Section 3, but sub-
H ject to such rules as may be made in this behalf and the
UNNI KRISHNAN ,,_
v. STATE OF AP. (REDDY, J.] 689

Andhra Pradesh Educational lnstitutions (Regulation of A
admission) Order, 1974, it shall be lawful for the manage-
ment of any unaided private engineering, college, medical
college, dental college and such other class, of unaided
educational institutions as may be notified by the Govern-
ment in this behalf to admit students into such colleges or
B
educational institutions to the extent of one half of the
total number of seats from among those who have qualified
in the common entrance test or in the qualifying examina-
tion, as the ~e may be, feferred to in sub-seciton (1) of
Section 3 irrespective of the ranking assigned to them in
such test or examination and nothing contained in Section c
5 shall apply to such admissions."

A Full Bench of the Andhra Pradesh High Court has struck it down
as being violative of Article 14 of the Constitution and also on the ground
of repugnancy with Section 12-A of the University Grants Commission Act, D
1956 Kranti Sangram Parisliad v. Sri NJ. Reddy, (1992} 3 A.L.T. 99. The
correctness of the said decision, is assailed before us.

73. This Section is in truth; in the nature of an exception to the other
provisions of the Act. It says that notwithstanding anything contained in
Section 3, but subject to the rules as may be framed by the Government in E
this behalf, the private educational institutions of the nature mentioned
therein, shall be entitled to admit students to the extend of half the number
of seats from among those who have qualified in the common entrace test
or the qualifying examination, as the case may be. This statement is
accompanied by two significant features viz., (1) admission of such students F
could be irrespective of the ranking assigned to them to the common
entrance test or other qualifying examination, as the case may be; and (2)
it is made clear that nothing contained in Section 5 shall apply to such
admissions. The Section is, thus, an exception to Section 3, 5. Section 3, it
may be remembered, provides that admissions have to be made, to all
categories, strictly in accordance with merit. The section, read as a whole, G
leads to the following consequences:

(a) It is open to the private educational institutions to charge as much
amount as they can for admission. It will be a matter of bargain between
the institution and the student seeking admission. H
690 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993) 1 S.C.R.

A (b) The admission can be made without reference to inter-se merit
of paying candidates. The institution will be entitled to pick and choose the .-.../
candidates among the applicants on such considerations as it may deem fit.

(c) Section 5, which prohibtis collection of capitation fee by an
education institutions, is expressly made inapplicable to such admissions.
B This is not without a purpose. The purpose is to permit the institutions to
charge as much as they can in addition to the collection of the prescribed
tuition fee.

74. We have held hereinbefore that the educational activity of the
private educational institutions is supplemental to the main effort by the
c State and that what applies to the main activity applies equally to the
supplemental activity as well. If Article 14 of the Constitution applies - as
it does, without a doubt - to the State institutions and compels them to
admit students on the basis of merit and merit alone (subject, of course,
to any permissible reservations - wherein too, merit inter-se has to be
D followed) the applicability of Article 14 cannot be excluded from the _;...-
supplemental effort/activity. The State Legislature had, therefore, no power
to say that a private educational institution will be entitled to admit
students of its choice, irrespective of merit or that it is entitled to charge
as much as it can, which means a free hand for exploitation and more
E particularly, commercialisation of education, which is impermissible in law.
No such immunity from the constitutional obligation can be claimed or
. conferred by the State Legislature. On this ground alone, the Section is
liable to fail.

In the circumstances, it is not necessary for us to go into the question
F whether the section is bad on account of repugnancy ·with Section 12-A of
the University Grants Commissioa Act. It is enough to say that the said
section falls foul of Article 14 for the reasons given above the must
accordingly fail. V./e agree that the offending portions of Section 3-A
cannot be severed from the main body of the section and, therefore, the
G whole section is liable to fall to the ground.

It is not brought to our notice that the enactments of other three
States viz., Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra contain similar of-·
fending provisions. Indeed, they do not. None of their provisions says that, . --<.' di ""'..,
the Management of a private educational institution can admit students, . '
H against 11 paY,ment seats1', "irrespective of the ranking assigned to them iri
.. UNNJ KRISHNAN v. STATE OF A.P. (REDDY, J.] 691

such test (entrance test) or examination." Much less do they say that to A
such admissions, the provision prohibiting capitation fee shall not apply.
True, they do norsay expressly that such admissions shall be made on the
basis of merit, but that, according to us, is implicit. If the notifications or
order issued thereunder provide otherwise, either expressly or by implica-
tion, they would be equally bad for the reason given above.
B
75. Once Section 3-A is struck down, the question arises as to what
should happen to the students who were admitted by the Private Engineer-
ing Colleges in this State, at their own discretion, to the extent of the 50%
of the available seats. The High Court has invalidated these admissions but
they are continuing now by virtue of the orders of stay granted by this C
Court. A fact which must be kept in mind in this behalf is this: Until the
previous year, the Government of Andhra Pradesh has been permitting
these private engineering colleges to collect a higher fees from all the
students allotted to them. (We are told that the fees permitted to be
collected was Rs. 10,000 per annum for the previous year). Of course, all D
the available seats wero filled up by students allotted by the convenor of
the common entrance exam; no one could be addmitted by these colleges
on their o\vn. Now, for the current year, these colleges admitted 50% of
the students in their own discretion · which necessarily means collection of
capitation and/or arbitrary admissions for their own private reasons. At the
same time, these colleges have been collecting the same fees (Rs. 10,000 E
per annum) both from the students allottee by the convenor as also from
those admitted by themselves. Thus they have reaped a double advantage.

76. It is submitted by Shri Shanti Bhushan the learned counsel for
these students that they were innocent parties and had obtained admission
F
in a bona fide belief that their admissions were being made properly. They
have been studying since them and in a few months their academic year
will come to a close. May be, the managements were guilty of irregularity,
he says~ but so far as the students aie concerned they have done nothing
contrary to law to deserve the punishment awarded by the Full Bench of
the High Court. G

77. It is true, as pointed out by the High Court that these admissions
were made in a hurry but the fact remains that they have been continuing
in the said course under the orders of this Court over the last about four
months. As stated hereinbefore, the present situation has been brought H

•
692 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993] 1 S.C.R.

A about by a combination of circumstances, namely the enactment of Section
. 3-A, tlie allotment of students to the extent of 50% only by the convenor
and the failure of the Government to immediately rectify the
misunderstanding of the convenor. In the circumstances we are not satis-
fied that these students should be sent out at this stage. May be, the result
B is rather unfortunate but we have to weigh all the relevnt circumstances.
At the same time we are of the opinion that the managements of these
private engineering colleges should not be allowed to walk away with the
double advantage referred to above. Since they have admitted students of
their own choice to the extent of 50% and also because it is not possible
to investigate or verify for what consideration those admissions were made,
c we think it appropriate to direct that these colleges should charge only that
fee from the 50% 'free students' as is charged for similar courses in the
concerned university engineering colleges. For the remaining years of their
course these colleges shall collect only the said fee, which for the sake of
convenience may be called the 'government fee'. The balance of the
D amount which they have already collected during this year shall be remitted
into the Government account within six weeks from today, in default
whereof the recognition and affiliation given to these colleges shall stand
withdrawn. In other words whichever college fails to comply with the above
direction it will stand disaffiliated on the expiry of six weeks from today
E and the recognition granted to it, if any, by any appropriate authority shall
also stand withdrawn.

78. So far as Writ Petition 855 of 1992 is concerned, it complains of
charging of double the tuition fee is case of students coming from outside
F the Maharashtra. The matter stand concluded against the petitoners by a
· decision of a Constitution Bench of this Court in D.P. Joshi v. State of
Madhya Pradesh, [1955] 1 SCR 1215..This Writ Petition is accordingly
dismissed.

G 79. Coming to Civil Appeal No. 3573 of 1992 filed by Mahatma
Gandhi Mission, we are inclined, in all the facts and circumstances of the
case to stay the operation of the impugned order which is only an inter-
locutory order effective till the disposal of the main Writ Petition. Writ r-{
Petition may be disposed of according to law and in the light to this
H Judgment.
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [REDDY, J.J 693

PARTV A

80. For the above reasons _the Writ Petitions and Civil Appeals except
(W.P. (C) 855/92, C.A. 3573/92 and the Civil Appeals arising from S.L.Ps.
13913 and 13940/92) are disposed of in the following terms:

1. The citizens of this country have a fundamental right to education. B
The said right flows from Article 21. This right is, however, not an absolute
right. Its content and para meters have to be determined in the light of
Articles 45 and 41. In other words every child/citizen of this country has a
right to free education until he completes the age of fourteen years.
Thereafter his right to education is subject to the limits of economic C
capacity and development of the State.

2. The obligations created by Articles, 41, 45 and 46 of the Constitu-
tion can be discharged by the State either by establishing institutions of its
own or by aiding, recognising and/or granting affiliation to private educa- D
tional institutions. Where aid is not granted to private educational institu-
tions and merely recognition or affiliation is granted it may not be insisted
that the private education institution shall charge only that foe as is charged
for similar courses in governmental institutions. The private educational
institutions have to and are entitled to charge a higher fee, not exceeding
the ceiling fixed in that behalf. The admission of students and the charging E
of fee in these private educational institutions shall be governed by the
scheme evolved herein ·· set out in Part III of this Judgment.

3, A citizen of this country may have a right to establish an educa-
tional institution but no citizen, perosn or institution has a right much less F
a fundamental righi, to affiliation or recognition, or to grant-in-aid from
the State. The recognition and/or affiliation shall be given by the State
subject only to the conditions set out in, and only accordance with the
scheme contained in Part III of this Judgment. No Government/University
or authoril y shall be competent to grant recognition or affiliation except in G
accordance with the said scheme. The said scheme shall constitute a
condition of such recognition-Ol'.:'affiliation, as the case may be, in addition
to such other conditiou"s. anp terms which such Government, University or
other authority may choose to impose.

Those receiving aid shall, however, be subject to all such terms and H
694 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A conditions, as the aid giving authority may impose in the interest of general
public.

4. Section 3-A of the Andhra Pradesh Educational Institutions
(Regulation of Admission And Prohibition of Capitation Fee) Act, 1983 is
violative of the equality Clause enshrined in Article 14 and is accordingly
B declared void. The declaration of the Andhra Pradesh High Court in this
behalf is affirmed.

5. Writ Petition No. 855 of 1992 is dimissed.

Civil Appeal No. 3573 of 1992 is allowed and the impugned order is
c set aside. The main Writ Petition wherein the said interim order has been
passed may now be disposed cf according to law.

6. Civil Appeals arising from S.L.Ps. 13913 and 13940/92 (preferred
by students who were admitted by private unaided engineering colleges in
D Andhra Pradesh, without an allotment from the convenor of the common
entrance examination) are allowed. The students so admitted for the
dcademic year 1992-93 be allowed to continue in the said course but the
management shall comply with the directions given in para 77 hereinabove.

MOHAN, J. I have had the advantage of perusing the judgment of
E my learned brother Justice B.P. Jeevan Reddy. Though, I am in agreement
with his conclusion, I would like to give my own reasonings. Since my
learned brother has set out the facts, I will confine myself to answering the
three questions, name!y:

1. Whether the Constitution of India guarantees a fundamental right
F
to education to its citizens?

2. Whether there is a fundamental right to establish an educational
institution under Article 19(1)(g)?·

G 3. Does recognition or affiliation make tht educational institution an
instrumentality?

All the these matters raise a burning issue; as to ho\V to put .an end
to the evil of capitation fee or at least to regulate it. , -\

H As a prelude, the importance of education may be set out.
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [MOHAN, J.] 695

The immortal Poef Valluvar whose Tirukkura! will surpass all ages A
').... and transcend all religions said of education:

"Learning is excellence of wealth that none destroy; To man
nought else affords reality of joy."

Therefore, the importance of education does not require any em- B
phasis.

The fundamental purpose of Education is the same at all times and
in all places. It is to transfigure the human personality into a pattern of
perfection through a synthetic process of the development of the body, the C
,.._. enrichment of the mind, the sublimation of the emotions and the illumina-
tion of the spirit. Education is a preparation for a living and for life, here
and hereafter.

An old Sanskrit adage states: "That is Education which leads to
liberation" - liberation from ignorance which shrouds the mind; liberation D
from superstition which paralyses effort, liberation froc prejudices which
bling the Vision of the Truth.

In the context of a democratic form of government which depends
for its sustenance upon the enlightenment of the populace, education is at E
once a social and political necessity. Even several decades ago, our leaders
harped upon universal primary education as a desideratum for national
progress. It is rather sad that in this great land of ours where knowledge
first lit its torch and where the human mind soared to the highest pinnacle
of widom, the percentage . of illiteracy should be appalling. Today, the
frontiers of knowledge are enlarging with incredible swiftenss. The F
foremost iieed to be satisfied by our edueation is, therefore, the eradication
of illiterac-; which persists in a depressing measure. Any effort taken in this
direction cannot be deemed to be too much.

Victories are gained, peace is preserved, progress is achieved, G
civilization is build up and history is made not on the battle-fields where
ghastly murders are committed in the name of patriotism, not in the
Council Chambers where insipid speeches are spun out in the name of
debate, not even in factories where are manufactured novel instruments to
strangle life, but in educational institutions which are the seed-beds of
culture, where children in whose hands quiver the destinies of the future, H
696 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A are trained. From their ranks will come out when they grow up, statesmen
and soldiers, patriots and philosophers, who will determine the progress of
the land.

The importance of education bas come to be recognised in various
judicial decisions.
B
In Oliver Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, U.S. Supreme
Court Reports 98 Law. Ed. U.S. 347 at page 880 it was observed:

"Today, education is perhaps the most important function
of state and local governments. Compulsory school atten-
c dance laws and the great expenditures for education both ,
demonstrate our recognition of the importance of educa-
tion to our democractic society. It is required in the per-
formance of our most basic public responsibilities, even
service in the armed forces. It is very foundation of good
D citizenship. Today it is a principal instrument in awakening
the child to cultural values, in preparing him for later
professional training, and in helping him to adjust normally
to his environment."

Various fundamental rights enumerated under Part III of our Con-
E stitution can be divided 'nto two classes.

1. lnjuction restraining the State from denying certain fundamental
rights like Articles 14 and 21.

2. A positive conferment of such fundamental rights under Articles
F 19, 25 and 26 etc.

In this connection, the following passage from Addi. Dist. Magistrate ~ ··
v. S.S. Sltukla, (1976] Supp. SCR 172 @ 229-2.10 may be quoted:

''Part III of our Constitution confers fundamental rights in
G positive as well as in negative language. Article 15(1), 16(1),
19, 22(2), 22(5), 25(1), 26, 29(1), 30 and 32(1) can be
described to be Articles in positive language. Articles 14, . _..,,_
15(2), 16(2), 20, 21, 22(1), 22(4), 27, 28(1), 29(2), 31(1) and
(2) are 1n negative language. It is apparent that most
H categories of fundamental rights are in positive as well as
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. (MOHAN, J.] 697

in negative language. A fundamental right couched in nega- A
tive language accentuates by reason thereof the importance
of that right. The negative language is worded to emphasise
the immunity from State action as a fundamental right. (See
The State of Bihar v. Maharajadhiraja Sir Kameshwar Singh
of Darohanga and Ors.) These fundamental rights con-
B
ferred by our Constitution have taken different forms.
Some of these fundamental rights are said to have the .
texture of Basic Human Rights (See A.K Gopalan's case
(supra) at pp. 96-97, 248-293 and Bank nationalalisation
case (Supra) at pp. 568-71, 576-78)."
c
Article 21 reads as follows:

"Perfection of life and personal liberty:- No person
shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except
according to procedure established by law."
D
It would be clear that it acts as a shield against deprivation of life or
personal liberty.

A question may be asked as to why it did not positively confer a
fundamental right to life or personal liberty like Article 19. The reason is,
great concepts like liberty and life were purposefully left to gather meaning E
from experie.nce. They relate to the whole domain of social and economic
fact. The drafters of this Constitution knew too well that only a stagnant
society remains uncharged.

Unlike such rights as required to be enumerated it has long been
recognised that the individual shall have full protection in person. It is a F
principle as old as law. However, it has been found necessary from time to
time to define a new the exact nature and the extent of such protection.
Political, social and economic changes entail the recognition of new rights
and the law in its eternal youth grows to meet the demands of society. The
right to life and liberty inhere in every man. There is no need to provide G
for the same in a positive manner.

While dealing with the scope of Article 21 it was observed in Maneka
Gandhi v. Union of India, AIR 1978 597 @ 620-21 that:

"It is obvious that Art. 21, though couched in negative H
698 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A language, confers the fundamental right to life and personal
liberty. So far as the right personal liberty is concerned, it
is ensured by providing that no one shall be deprived of
personal liberty except according to procedure prescribed
by law. The first question that arises for consideration on
the language of Art. 21 is : what is the meaning and content
B of the words 'personal liberty' as used in this Article? This
question incidentally came up for discussion in some of the
judgments inA.K Gopalan v. State of Madras, (1950] SCR
88 : (AIR 1950 SC 27) and the observations made by
Patanjali Sastri, J., Mukhe1jee, J. and S.R. Das, J. seemed
c to place a narrow interpretation on the words 'personal
liberty' so as to confine the protection of Art. 21 to freedom
of the person against unlawful detention. But there was no
definite pronouncement made on this point since the ques-
tion before the Court was no so much the interpretation of
the words 'personal liberty' as the inter-relation between
D
Arts. 19 and 21. It was in Kharak Singh v. State of U.P.,
[1964] 1 SCR 332; (AIR 1963 SC 1295) that the question
as to the proper scope and meaning of the expression
'personal liberty' came up pointedly for consideration for
the first time before this Court. The majority of the Judges
E took the view "that 'personal liberty' is used in the article
as a compendious term to include within itself all the
varieties of rights which go to make up the 'personal
liberties' of man other than those deal! with in the several
clauses of Art. 19(1). In other words, while Art. 19(1) deals
with particular species of attributes of tljat freedom, 'per-
F
sonal liberty' in Art. 21 takes in and comprises the residue".
The minority Judges, however, disagreed with this view
taken by the majority and explained their position in the
following words:

G "No doubt the expression 'personal liberty' is a com-
prehensive one and the right to move freely is an attribute
of personal liberty. It is said that the freedom to move
freely is carved out of persoanl liberty and, therefore, the
expression 'personal liberty' in Art. 21 excludes that at-
H tribute. In our view, this is not a correct approach. Both
r
..,..- UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [MOHAN, J.] 699

are independent fundamental rights, though there is over· A
lapping. There is no question of one being carved out of
' :.- another. The fundamental right of life and personal liberty
has many attributes and some of them are found in Art.
19. If a person's fundamental right under Art. 21 is infr-
inged, the State can rely upon a law to sustain the action,
B
but that cannot be a complete answer unless the -said law
satisfies the test laid down in Art. 19{2) so far as the
attributes covered by Art. 19{2) so far as the attributes
covered by Art. 19(1) are concerned.''

There can be no doubt that in view of the decision of C
this Court in R.C. Cooper v. Union of India, (1970] 3 SCR
530: (AIR 1970 SC 564) the minority view must be
regarded as correct and the majority view must be held
to have been overruled."(Emphasis supplied)

Therefore, it is not correct to state that because the article is couched D
in a negative language, positive rights to life and liberty are not conferred
as argued by Mr. Tarkunde, learned counsel.

This Court in Klzarak Singh v. State of U.P., (1964] 1 SCR 332 , {345,
347 and 349) interpreted the word "liberty" on the lines of the meaning
accorded to liberty in the 5th and 14th amendments to the U.S. Constitu- E
tion by in Mumi v. lllionis, (1877] 94 U.S. 113. Accordingly it was held:

'"Personal Liberty' in Art. 21 takes in all the rights of man."

The 4th Amendment of U.S. Constitution guaranteed "the right to be
secure on their persons, houses ..... 11 F

This right was read into Article 21 and it was held that "there cannot
be an unauthorised intrusion into a person's home".

In Kesavananda Bharati v. Kera/a, [1973] Supp. SCR page 1 Mathew,
J. stated therein that the fundamental rights themselves have no fixed G
content, most of them are empty vessels into which each generation must
pour its content in the light of its experience. It is relevant in this context
to remember that in building up a just social order it is sometimes impera-
tive that the fundamental rights should be subordinated to directive prin-
ciples. H
700 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A In Puthumma's case, (1978] 2 SCR 537, it has been stated:

"The attempt of the court should be to expand the
reach and ambit of the fundamental rights rather than
accentuate their meaning acd content by process of judi-
cial construction •.. Personal liberty in Article 21 is of the
B widest amplitude".

In this conne~tion, it is worthwhile to recall what was said of the
American Constitution in Mussorie v. Holland, 252 U.S. 416 at 433:

C "When we are dealing with words that also are constituent
act, like the constitution of the United States, we must
realize that they have called into life a being the develop-
ment of whcih could not have been foreseen completely by
the most gifted of its begetters."

D In State of M.P. v. Pramod Bhyaratiya and others, {1992) 2 Scale 791
it is stated:

"Because clause (d) of Article 39 spoke of "equal pay
for equal work" for both men and women it did not cease
to be part of article 14. To say that the rule having been
E
state.ct as a directive principle of State Policy, and no
enforceable in court of law is to indulge in sophistry. Parts
IV & III of Constitution are not supposed to be exclusion-
ary of each other. They are complementary to each other.
The rule is as much a part of Article 14 as it is of clause
F (1) of Article 16."

This Court has held that several unenumerated rights fall within
Article 21 since personal liberty is of widest amplitude.

The following rights are held to be covered under Article 21:
G
1. The right to go abroad
Satwant Singh v. A.P.O. New Delh~ (1967] 3 SCR page 525.

2. The right to privacy
H Govinda v. State of U.P., (1975] 3 SCR 946
•(
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF A.P. [MOHAN, J.] 701

In this case reliance was placed on the American decision in A
Griswols v. Connecticu~ 381 US 479 at 510
~
~
3. The Right against solitary confinement
Sunil Batra v. Del/hi Administration, (1978) 4 SCC 494 at 545

4. The Right against Bar fetters B
C!zarles Sobraj v. Supt. Central Jail, (1979] 1 SCR 111

~
5. The Right to legal aid
Hoskot v. State of Maharashtra, (1979) 1 SCR 192

6. The Right to speedy trial c
H11ssainuia Katoon v. State of Bihar, (1979) 3 SCR 169

7. The Right against Handcuffing

.. Prem Slzankar v. Delhi Administration, (1080] 3 SCR 855

8. The Right against delayed execution
T. V. Vatheeswara11 v. State of Tamil Nadu, AIR 1983 SC 361
D

9. The Right against custodial violence
Sheela Bhasre v. State of Maharashtra, (1983) 2 SCC 96

10. The Right against public hanging E
...... A.G. of llldia v. Lachmadevi, AIR 1986 SC 467

11. Doctor's Assistance
Paramananda Katra v. UOI, (1989) 4 SCC 286

12. Shelter
F
Salltistar Builder v. N.Kl. Totame, [1990) 1 SCC 520
~
If really Article 21, which is the heart of fundamental rights has (
received expanded meaning from time to time there is no justification as
to why it cannot be interpreted in the light of Article 45 wherein the State G
is obligated to provide education up to 14 years of age, within the
prescribed time limit.
)-
So much for personal liberty.

Now coming to life: this Court interpreted in Bandhua Mukti Morcha .H
702 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993] 1 S.C.R.

A v. Union of India, (1984] 3 SCC 161 @ 183-84:

"It is the fundamental right of everyone in this country,
assured under the interpretaiton given to Article 21 by this
Court in Francis Mullin's case, to live with human dignity,
free from exploitation. This right to live with human dig-
B
nity, free from exploitation. This right to live with human
dignity enshrined in Article 21 derives its life breath from
the directive Principles of State Policy and particularly
clauses (e) and (t) of Article 39 and Article 41and42 and
at the leas~ therefore, it must include protection of the
c health and strength of workers, men and women, and of
the tender age of children against abuse, opportunities
and facilities for children to develop in a healthy manner
and in conditions of freedom and dignity, educational
facilities, just and humane conditions of work and mater-
D nity relief. These are the minimum requirements which
must exi:;t in order lo enable a person to live \Vith human
dignity and no State - neither the Central Government nor
any State Government - has the right to take any action
which will deprive a person of the enjoyment of these basic
essentials. Since the Directive Principles of State Policy
E contained in clauses (e) and (t) of Article 39, Articles 41
and 42 are not enforceable in a court of law, it may not
be possible to compel the State through the judicial
process to make provision by statutory enactment or ex-
ecutive fiat for ensuring these basic essentials which go to
F make up a life of human dignity but where legislation is
already enacted by the State providing these basic require-
ments to the workmen and thus investing their right to live
with basic human dignity, with concreate reality and con-
tent, the State can certainly be obligated to ensure obser-
vance of such legislation for inaction on the part of the
G State in securing implementation of such legislation w~uld
amount to denial of the right to live with human dignity
enshrined in Article 21, more so in the context of Article
256 which provides that the executive power of every State
shall be so exercised as to ensure compliance with the laws
H made by Parliament and any existing laws which apply in

l
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [MOHAN, J.] 703

that State.' A

This, was eleborated iu Olga Tellis v. Bombay Municipal Corporation,
(1985] 3 sec 545 @ 571-573:

'As we have stated while summing up the petitioners' case, B
the main plank of their argument is that the right to life
which is guaranteed by Article 21 includes the right to
livelihood and since, they will be deprived of their
livelihood if they are evicted from their slum and pavement
dwellings, their eviction is tantamount to deprivation of
their life and is hence unconstitutional. For purposes of c
argument, we will assume the factual correctness of the
premise that if the petitioners are evicted from their dwell-
ings, they will be deprived of their livelihood. Upon that
assumption, the question which we have to consider is
whether the right to life includes the right to livelihnod. We D
see only one answer to that question, namely, that it does.
The sweep of the right to life conferred by Article 21 is
wide and far reaching. It does not mean merely that life
cannot be extinguished or taken away as, for eXlllJlple, by
the imposition and execution of the death sentence, except
according to procedure established by law. That is but one E
aspect of the right to life. An equally important facet of
that right is the right to livelihoad because, no person can
live without the means of living, that is, the means of
livelihood. If the right to livelihood is not treated as a part
of the constitutional right life, the easie.st way of depriving F
a person of his right to life wonld be to deprive him of his
means of livelihood to the point of abrogation. Such
--~--- deptivation wonld not only denude the life of its effective
content and meaningfulness but it would make life impos-
sible to live. And yet, such deprivation would not have to
be in accorolillce with the procedure established by law, if G
the • ight to livelihood is not regarded as a part of the right
to live. That, which alone makes it possible to live, leave
aside what makes life livable; must !>e deemed to be an
integral component of the right to life. Deprive a person
of his right to livelihood and you shall have deprived him H
704 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993) 1 S.C.R.
, .
A of his life. Indeed, that explains the massive migration of
the rural population to big cities. They migrate because
they have no means of livelihood in the villages. The motive
force which proples their desertion of their hearts and
homes in the village is the struggle for survival, that is, the
struggle for life. So unimpeachable is the evidence of the
B nexus between life and the means of livelihood. They have
to eat to live: Only a handful can efford the luxury of living
to eat. That they can do, namely, ·eat, only if they have the
means of livelihood. That is the context in which it was said
by Douglas, J. in Baksey that the right to work is the most
c precious liberty that man possesses. It is the most precious
liberty because, it sustains and enables a man to live and
the right to life is a precious freedom. "Life', as observed
by Field, J. in Munn v. Illinois, means something more than
mere animal existence and the inhibition against the
deprivation of life extends to all those limits and faculties
D
by which life is enjoyed. This obervation was quoted with
approval by this Court in Kharak Singh v. State of U.P.

Article 39(a) of the Constitution, which is a Directive
Principle of State Policy, provides that the State shall, in
E particular, direct its policy towards securing that the
citizens, men and women equally, have the right to an
adequate means of livelihood. Article 41, which is another
Directive Principle, provides, inter alia, that the State
shall, within the limits of its economic capacity and
F development, make effective provision for securing the
right to work in cases of unemployment and of undeserved
want. Article 37 provides that the Directive Principles,
though not enforceable by any court, are nevertheless
fundamental in the governance of the country. The p;in.
ciples contained in Articles 39(a) and 41 must be regarded
G as equally fundamental in the understanding and inter-
pretation of the meaning and content of fundamental
rights. If there is an obligation upon the State to secure to
the citizens an adequate means of livti/ihood and the right
to work, it would be sheer pedantry to exclude the right to
H livelihood from. the content of the right to life. The State may
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [MOHAN, J.] 705

no~ by affirmative action, be compellable to provide ade- A
'>.- quate means of livelihood or work to the citizens. But, any
person, who is deprived of his right to livelihood except
according to just and fair procedure established by law,
can challenge the deprivation as offending the right to life
conferred by Article 21."(Emphasis supplied)
B
If thus, personal liberty and life have come to be given expanded
meaning, the question to be addressed is, whether life which means to live
~- with dignity, will take within it education as well? To put it more emphati-
cally, whether right to education flows from right to life? Before we go to
Mohini Jain's case [1992] 3 SCC 666 it may be necessary to refer to State c
of An·dhra Pradesh v. Lavu Narendranaih, [1971] 1 SCC 607. At page 614
it is stated:

... 'Lastly it was urged that such test affected the personal
liberty of the candidates secured under Article 21 of the
Constitution. We fail to see how refusal of an application
D
to enter a medical college can be said to affect one's
personal liberty guaranteed under that article. Everybody,
subject to the eligibility precribed by the University, was
at liberty to apply for admission to the medical college.
The number of seats being limited compared to the num- E
ber of applicants every candidate could not exp!'ct to be
admitted. Onq; it is held that the test is not invalid the
deprivation of personal liberty, if any, in the matter of
admission· to a medical college was according to proce-
dure established by law. Our attention was drawn to the F
case of Spottwood v. Sharpe, in which it was held that due
process clause of the Fifty Amendment of the American
~-
Constitution prohibited racial segregation in the District
of Columbia. Incidentally the Court made a remark (at p.
887):
G
"Although the Court has not assumed to define "liberty".
with any great precision, that term in not confined to mere
~- freedom from bodily restraint. Liberty under law extends
' to the full range of conduct which the individual is free to
pursue, and it cannot be restricted except for a proper H
706 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993] 1 S.C.R..

A governmental objective. Segregation in public education is
not reasonably related to any proper governmental objec- _J
tive, and thus it imposes on Negro children of the District
of Columbia a burden that constitutes an arbitrary depriva·
· tion of their liberty in violation of the Due Process Clause.

B The problem before is altogether different. In this case
everybody subject to the minimum qualification prescri.bed
was at liberty to apply for admission. The Government
objective in selecting a number of them was certainly not.
improper in the circumstances of the case,."
c It requires to be carefully noted. that deprivate of personal liberty if
done by a valid procedure established by law, the fundamental right under
Article 21 was not, in any manner, affected. That is the crux of this ruling.

~
D Now, coming to Mohini Jain's case (supra) it was observed at pages
679-80:

"Right to life" is the compendious expression for all those
rights which the courts must enforce becuase they are basic
to the dignified enjoyment oflife. It extends to the full range
E
of conduct which the individual is free to pursue. The right
to education flows directly from right to life. The right to
life under Article 21 and the dignity of an inaividual cannot
be assured unless it is accompanied by the right to educa-
tion. The State Government is under an obligation to make
F endeavour to provide educational facilities at all levels to
its citizens."
_....._
Education is enlightenment. It is the one that lends dignity to a man
as was rightly observed by Gajendragarkear, J. (as he then was) in Univer·
sity of Delhi v. Ram Nath, [1964] 2 SCR 703 at 710:
G
"Education seeks to build up the personality of the pupil
by assisting his physical, intellectual, moral and emotional
development." . ""' •
H If life is so interpreted as to bring within it right to education, it has
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [MOHAN, J.] 707

to be interpreated in the light of directive principles. This Court has A
uniformly taken the view that harmonious interpretation of the fundamen-
tal rights vis-a-vis the directive principles must be adopted. We will now
refer to some of the important cases.

In State of Kera/a & Anr. v. N.M. Thomas & Anr., [1976] 1 SCR 906. B
at 914 it was held:

"There is complete unanimity of judicial opinion of this
Court that the Directive Principles and the Fundamental
Rights should be construed in harmony with each other
and every attempt should be made by the Court to resolve c
apparent inconsistency.

The Directive Principles contained in Part IV con-
stitute the stairs to climb the High edifice of a socialistic
State and the Fundamental Rights are the means through
which one can reach the top of the edifice. D

The Directive Principles form the fundamental feature
and the social conscience of the Constitution which en-
I joins upon the State to implement these Directive Prin-
!' ciples. The Directives, thus provide the policy, the
E
guidelines and the end of socio-economic freedom and
Arts. 14 and 16 are the means to implement the policy to
achieve the ends sought to be promoted by the Directive
Principles. So far as the Courts are concerned where there
is no apparent inconsistency between the Directive Prin-
ciples contained in Part IV and the Fundamental Rights F
_mentioned in Part III, there is no difficulty in putting a
harmonius construction which advances the object of the
Constitution. 11

In Pathumma and others v. State of Kera/a and others, [1978] 2 SCR G
537 at 545-46 it was observed:

"In fac4 in the case of His Holiness Kesavananda
Bharati Sripadaga/avaru v. State of Kera/a all the Judges
constituting the Bench have with one voice given the
Directive Priciples contained in the Constitution a place H
708 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993) 1 S.C.R.

A of honour. Hegde and Mukherjea, JJ. as they they were
have said that the fundamental rights and the Directive
Principles constitute the "conscience" of our Constitution.
The purpose of the Directive Principles is to foe certain
socio and economic goals for immediate attainment by
bringing about a non-violent social revolution.
B Chandrachud, J. observed that our Constitution aims at
bringing about a systhesis between 'Fundamental Rights'
and the 'Directive Principles of State Policy' by giving to
the former a place of pride and to the latter a place of
permanence.
c
In a latter case State of Kera/a & Anr. v. N.M. T7iomas
& Ors., [1976) 2 SCC 310 one of us (Fazal Ali, J.) after
analysing the Judgment delibered by all the Judges in the
Kesvananda Bharati's case (supra) on the importance of
the Directive Principles observed as follows:
D
"In view of the principles adumbrated by this Court it
is clear that the Directive Principles form the fundamental
feature and the social conscience of the Constitution and
the Constitution enjoins upon the State to implement
E these directive principles. The directives thus provide the
policy, the guidelines and the end of socio-economic
freedom of Articles 14 and 16 are the means to implement
the policy to achieve the ends sought to be promoted by
the directive principles. So far as the courts are con-
F cerned where there is no apparent inconsistency between
the directive principles contained in Part III, which in fact
supplement each other, there is no difficulty in putting a
harmonious construction, which advances the object of the
Constitution. Once this basic fact is kept in mind, the
interpretation of Articles 14 and 16 and their scope and
G ambit he come as clear as day".

In the case of The State of Bombay v. R.M.D. Chamar-
baugwala this Court while stressing the importance of
directive principles contained in the Constituion observed
H as follows:
•
/ UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [MOHAN, J.]

'The avowed purpose of our constitution is to create A
a welfare State. The directive principles of State Policy set
forth in Part IV of our Constitution enjoin upon the State
the duty to strive to promote the welfare of the people by
securing and protecting, as effectively as it may, a social
order in which justice, social, economic and political, shall
B
inform all tbe institutions of the national life."

In the case of Fatehchand Himmatlal & Ors. v. State
of Maharashtra etc. (supra) the Constitution Bench of this
Court observed as follows:

'Incorporation of Directive Principles of State Policy
c
casting the high duty upon the State to strive to promote
the welfare of the people by securing and protecting as
effectively as it may, a social order in which justice - social,
.economic and political - shall inform all the institutions of
the national life, is not idle point but command to action. D
We can never forget, except at our peril, that the Con-
stitution obligates the State to ensure an adequate means
or' livelihood to its citizens and to see that the health and
strength of workers, men arid woinen, are not abused, that
exploitation, moral and material, shall be extradited. In E
short, State action defending the weaker sections from
social injustice and all forms ·of exploitation and raising
the standard of living of the poeple, necessarily imply that
economic activities, attired as trade or business or com-
merce, can be de-r<?cognised as trade or business."
F
In Delhi Development Horticulture Employees' Union v. Delhi Ad-
ministration, Delhi and others, (1992] 4 SCC 99 at 110 it was observed:

"There is no doubt that broadly interpreted and as a
necessary logical corollary, right to life would include the
right to livelihood and, therefore, right to work. It is for G
this reason that this Court in Olga Tellis v. Bombay
Municipal Corporation while considering the consequen-
ces of eviction of the pavement dwellers had pointed out
that in that case the eviction not merely resulted in
deprivation of shelter but also deprivation of livelihood H
710 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A inasmuch as the pavement dwellers were employed in the
vicinity of their dwellings. The Court had, therefore, em-
phasised that the problem of eviction of the pavement
dwellers bad to be viewed also in that context. This was,
however, in the context of Article 21 which seeks to
protect persons ~st the deprivation of their life except
B according to procedure established by law. This Country
bas so far not found it feasible to incorporate the right to
livelihood as a fundamental right in the Constitution. This
is because the country has so far not attained the capacity
to guarantee it, and .no because it considers it any the less
c fundamental to life. Advisedly, Article 41 of which enjoins
upon the State to make effective provision for securing
the same "within the limits of its economic capacity and
development". Thus even while giving the direction to the
State to ensure the right to work, the Constitution makers
though it prudent not to do so without qualifying it."
D
Such a conclusion may not be open to criticism. So interpreted it
advances social justice.

In Vol. VII at pages 909 and 910 of the Constitutent Debates (1948-
E 49) it is stated:
"The Honourable Shri K. Santhanam : Sir, you will
remeber that throughtout Europe, after the First World.
War, all that the minorities wanted was the right to have
their own schools, and to conserve their own cultures
F which the Fascist and the Nazis refused them. In fact, they
did not want even the State schools. They did not want
State aid, or State assistance. They simply wanted that they
should be allowed to pursue their own customs and to
follow their own cultures and to establish and conduct
their own schools. Therefore I do not think it is right on
G
the part of any minority tu depreciate the rights given in
article 23(1).

Sir, in clause (2) of article 23 they are protected against .
discrimination. It is just possible that there may be many
H provinces based on language and therefore the Govern-
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [MOHAN, J.] 711

ment, the ministry and the legislature will be composed A
dominantly by members of the majority language. This
right of non-discrimination will then become fundamental
and valuable.

And then in clause (3) of this article, it is provided B
that when the State gives aid to education, ii shall not
discriminate against any educational institution, on the
ground that it is under the management of a minority.
Whether based on community or on language, and this
will be particularly applicable to the linguistic minorities.
In every province, there ar9 islands of these linguistic c
minorities. For instance, in my own provice of Tamil Nadu
there are islands, in almost every district, of villages where
a large number of Telugu-speaking people reside. In this
connection we have to hold the. balance even between two
different trends. First of all, we have to give to large D
linguistic minorities their right to be educated - especially
in the primary stages - in their own fonguage. At the same
time we should not interfere with the historical process of
assimilation. We ought not to think that for hundres and
thousands of years to come these linguistic minorities will
perpetuate themselves as they are. The historical proces- E
-~es should be allowed free play. These minorities should
be helped to become assimilated with the people of the
locality. They should gradually absorb the language of the
locality and become merged with the people there. Other-
wise they will be aliens, as it were, in those provinces, F
Therefore, we should not have rigid provisions by which
every child is automatically protected in what may be
called his mother-tongue. On the other band, this process
should not be sudden, it should not be forced. Wherever
there are large numbers of children, they should be given
education - primary education - in their mother-tongue. G
At the same time, they should be encouraged and assisted
to go to the ordinary schools of the provinces and to
imbibe the local tongue and get assimilated with the
people. If feel this clause does provide for these contin-
gencies in the most practicable fashion. H
712 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993] 1 S.C.R.

A Sir, Mr. Lari wanted an amendment which seeks to
provide that every child, rather that every section of the
citizens, shall be entitled to have primary education im-
parted to its children through the medium of the language
of that section. I suppose what he means is that wherever
primary education is imparted at the expense of the State,
B
such provisions should be made. But this, I think, would
give the minority or section of people speaking a language
the complete and absolute right to have primary education
which the people of this country do not have today. In the
directives we have provided that in fifteen years' time
c there should be universal primary education. But no one
knows whether the financial and other conditions in the
country would permit of universal primary education to
be established even then. Today no one in India can ask
for primary education as a right as only ten per cent of
the population get primary education. Therefore, it is not
D
possible to accept Mr. Lari's amendment, because that
would lead to all kinds of difficulties. If it were passed,
then anyone can go to the Supreme Court and say that his
child must get eduntion in a particular language. That is
not practicable, and I do not think even his intention is at
E all that.

At the same time, I think, what he has pleaded for
must be kept in mind as a general policy. It should be
direction of the Central and the Provi~cial Governments
F to see that wherever there are congregations of boys and
girls having a distinct mother togue, schools should be
provided in that language. I hope, that will be the policy
1 adopted all over the country, especially as, if there is going
to be new linguistic revisions of the boundaries, all the
border areas will be full of this problem. ! hope the report
G of the Linguistic Provinces Commission will contain some
wise provisions to be adopted in this behalf. There should
be no difficulty or hardship whatsoever in provinces when
they are rearranged on a linguistic basis. For instance, if
a Telugu goes to one area or the other, he should not have
H any hardship. As I said, this is a most difficult and com-
'
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [MOHAN, J.) 713

plicated problem and it cannot be dealt with in detail in A
the fundamental rights. This article 23 provides as much
security as can be done in the Constitution. Other
securities will have to be provided for both by Parliamen-
tary and provincial legislation, and I hope it will be done
in due course."
B
It is true the framers of the Constitution took that view. But the
position as \)n today is very different. The reason is Article 45 States as
.>--. under:

'Provision for free and compulsory education for C
children. - The State shall endeavour to provide, within a
period of ten years from the commencement of this Con-
stitution, for free and compulsory education for all
children until they complete the age of fourteen years.'

14 years, spoken to under the Article, had. long ago come to an end. D
We are in the 43rd year of Independence. Yet, if Article 45 were to remain
a pious wish and a fond hope, what good of it having regard to the
importance of primary education? A time limit was prescribed under this
Article. Such a time limit is fi!iund only here. If, therefore, endeavour has
not been made till now to make this Article reverberate with life and E
articulate with meaning, we should think the Court should step in. The
State can be obligated to ensure a right to free education of every child up
to the· age of 14 years. On this aspect a useful reference could be made
to what have been observed in Human Rights and Education Vol. 3 edited
by Norma Bernstein. Tarrow at page 41:
F
'The State is directed to strive for the right to educa-
tion, make provision for free and compulsory education
(Article 45), l\Jld promote the educational interests of
Scheduled Castes and Tribes, and other weaker sections
(including women).
G
Education is primarily the responsibility of the State
"Governments, but the Union Government has certain
responsibilities specified in. the Constitution on matters
such as planning, higher education and promotion of
education for weaker sectioni;. Most states have enacted H
714 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993) 1 S.C.R.

A legislation for compulsory education. At the end of the
Sixth Five Year Plan (1985) primary education for ages
6-11 is free in all states, and for age group 11-14 it is free
in all except Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. In
these States, girls and members of Scheduled Castes and
B Tribes get free education, and incentives such as mid-day
meals, free books and uniforms, are provided. At the
secondary stage several states have free education for all
children and those which do not make free education
available to all, do so for girls, Scheduled Castes and
Tribes. Thus, free education in all states is provided at the
c primary and secondary stages for girls, Scheduled Castes
and Tribes."

Again at page 43 it is stated:

'Useful measures of achievement in terms of the right
D
to education are literacy and enrolment levels. The con-
temporary picture, however, is not as good as one would
expect after 39 years of independence. The literacy rate
has risen from 16.6. per cent in 1951 to 36.6 per cent
according to the 1981 census. But regional variations in-
E dicate a range of above 60 per cent literacy in Kerala to
below 20 per cent in some states. Nearly 120 million in
tbe functional age group of 15-35 are still illiterate (Bhan-
dari, 1981).

F Over the last three decades of planned development,
rapid growth in facilities has attempted to provide access
for minorities and girls. The number of educational in-
stitutions has more than doubled, while the number of
teachers and students has multiplied many times. But
despite the fact that 93 per cent of the rural population
G have access to schools, nearly 30 per cent of 6-14 year old
(60 million) do not go to school and 77 per cent drop out.
A large percentage of the dropouts are grils and
Scheduled Caste and Tribe members. The main problems
are socio-economic constraints which result in educational
H constraints. Poverty is a majory cause for keeping chidren
{
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [MOHAN, J.] 715

away from school." A
Article 26(1) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states:

'Everyone has the right to education. Technical and profes-
sional and professional education shall be made generally
available and higher education shall be equally accessible B
to all on the basis of merit." (Emphasis supplied)

In the World of Science and the Rule of Law by John Ziman 1986
Edition at page 49 it is stated:

"The principal global treaty which covers this right is c
the ·1cESCR, .whose Article 13 recognizes the general
right to education enunciated by the UDHR, but then
goes on to add the following more specific provisions:

(2) The States Parties to the present Covenant recog-
D
nize that, with a view to achieving the full realization of
this right:

(a) Primary education shall be compulsory and avail-
able fee to all;
E
(b) Secondary education in its different forms, includ-
ing technical and vocational secondary education, shall be
made generally available and accessible to all by every
appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive
introduction of free education:
F
{c) Higher education shall be made equally accessible
to all, on the progressive introduction of free education;

(d) Fundamental education shall be encouraged or
intensified as far as possible for those persons who have
G
not received or completed the whose period of their
primary education;

(e) The development of a system of schools at all levels
shall be actively pursued, an adequate fellowship system
shall be established, and the material conditions of teach- H
716 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.C.R.

A ing staff shall be continuously improved.

The status of this Article is a useful reminder of the.
problems inherent in any attempt to create a 'social' right
of this kind for individuals against their states."

B No doubt, the above extract from Mohini Jain's case (supra) stat~
"education at all levels", but wc ·consider the law has been somewhat
broadly stated and, therefore, must be confined to what is envisaged under
Article 45.

C The criticism by Mr. Ashok Desai, learned counsel that Article 37
has not been adverted to and the reliance on directive principles is un-
tenable, in view of what we have stated above.

Highe~ education calls heavily on national economic resources. The
right to it must necessarily be limited in any given country by its economic
D and social circumstances. The State's obligation to provide it is, therefore,
not absolute and immediate but relative and progressive. It has to take
steps to the maximum of its available resources with a view to achieving
progressively the full realization of the right of education by all appropriate
means. But, with regard to the general obligation to provide education, the
E State is bound to provide the same, if it deliberately starved its educational
system by resources that it meanifestly had available unless it could show
that it was allocating them to some even more pressing programme. There-
fore, by holding education as a fundamental right up to the age of 14 years
this Court is not de!ermining the priorities. On the contrary, reminding it
F of the solemn endeavour, it has to take, under Article 45, within a
prescribed time,. which time limit was expired long ago.

Mr. K.K. Venugopal, learned counsel contends that in the U.S.
Supreme c;ourt in the case of San Antonio Independent School District v.
G Rodrigues, 1973 411 U.S. it was observed:

"It is not province of this Court to create substantive
constitutional rights in the name of guaranteeing equal
protection of the laws. Thus the key to discovering -
whether education is "Fundamental" is not to be found
H (imcomparisons) of the relative societal significanoos of
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF A.P. [MOHAN, J.] 717

education as opposed to subsistence or housing... Rather, A
the answer lies in assessing whether there is a right to
education explicitly or implicity guaranteed by the Con-
stitution".

But, if in reality, the fundamental rights and the directive principles
· are complementary to each other we are unable to ;oe why this fundamen- B
ta! right cannot be interpreted in this manner. The American Constitutio0
does not have a directive principle like Article 45. Therefore, the contrary
view was struck in San Antonio lndependeilt School District (supra) ..

While dealing with the American Law on this aspect in Vol. 57 1%9 C
California Law Review at page 380 it was stated:.

"It is true that the quotation from the Brown opinion
seems stunningly relevant. Taken literally it would be
,.,..
. decisive in some sense upon the question of this Article .
Education "must be made available to all on equal terms." D
From the vantage point of 1968, however, it is no longer
clear that Brown was specially concerned about the inter-
est in education. The decision had scarcely appeared
before the "fundamental" chracter of education become
the fundamental character of golf and swimming rights, E
and all the cases since Brown, even the cases involving
education, have shown complete preoccupation with the
racial factor. Meanwhile tile Cou;t has done nothing fur-
ther to suggest that education enjors a constitutional life
of its own.'
F
As to the present position of primary education in India, the addi-
_- ·· tional affidavit on behalf of Union of India filed by Mr. H.C. Baveja,
Assistant Education Advisor in the Ministry of Human Resources
Development, Government of India, Department of Education, New Delhi,
puts the position thus: G
STATUS OF ELEMENTRY EDUCATION IN INDIA

1. Provision of free and compulsory education to all
children until they complete the age of 14 years is .a
Directive Principle of the Constitution. Recognising the H
718 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.C.R.

A need for literate population and provision of elementary
education as a cruicial input for nation building, the policy
of the Government has been to provide all children the
free and compulsory .education at least up to elementary
. level (primary and upper primary level). The 6th Five
Year Plan document made a serious reference to the
B desirability of a time bound plan to achieve universal
enrolment. The 7th Plan conveyed a sense of urgency
about the need to achieve this objective. This was rein-
forced mid-way by the National Policy on Education, 1986.

c Progress over the years:

2. Concerted efforts to reach the target has led to
manifold increase in institutions, teachers and students as
shown in the table below:-

D Number of Institution (in lakhs)

1950-51 1990-91
Primary Schools : 2.10 5.58
(Class 1-V) .
Upper Primary Schools 0.13 1.46
E
(Class VI-VIII) .......
Total 2.23 7.04
Number of Teachers (In lakhs)
Primary Schools : 5.38 16.36
F
Upper Primary Schools : 0.36 10.59
Total 6.24 26.95
Gross Enrolment
Primary Enrolment (in lakhs) 192 991
G
Gross Enrolment Ratio 43.1% 101.03%
Upper Primary Stale ...._
Total Enrolment (in lakhs) 31 333 '··
Gross Enrolment Ratio 12.9% 60.11% '
H
UNNJ KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [MOHAN, J.) 719

3. This increase provided Indian Education System A
with one of the largest systems in the world, providing
accessibility within 1 km. walking distance of Primary
schools 'to 8.Zt(lakhs habitations containing about 94% of
the country's population. Growth in enrolment in the
decade of 80s showed an acceleration that has now
brought enrolment rates close of 100% at primary stage.
B

FREE EDUCATION:

4. In the endeavour to increase enrolment and achieve
the target of UEE, all State Governments have abolised C
tuition fee~ in Government Schools run by local bodies
and private aided institutions is mostly free in these States.
However, in private unaided schools which constitute
3.7.% of the total elementary schools in the country, some
. fee is charged. Thus, overall, it may be said that education D
up to elementary level in practically all schools is free.
Other costs of education such as text books, uniforms,
school bags, transport etc. are not borne by States except
in a very few cases by way of incentives to children of
indigent families or tb ·,se belonging to Scheduled
Caste/Scheduled Tribes categories. The reason why the E
State Government are nnable to bear this additional ex-
penditure is that 96% of expenditure on elementary
education goes in meeting the salaries of teaching and
non-teaching staff.
F
COMPULSORY EDUCATION

5. 14 States and 4 Union Territories have enacted
legislation to make education compulsory but the socio-
economic compulsions that keep the children away from
schools have restrained them from prescribing the rules G
and regulations whereby those provisions can be en-
dorsed.

Thus, it has to be concluded that the right to free education up to
the age of 14 years is a fundamental right. H
SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993) 1 S.C.R.

A The next question is whether there is a fundamental right to establish
an educational institution. That takes us to Article 19(1)(g). That reads as -...,/
follows:

'to practise any profession, or to carry on any occupa-
tion, trade or business."
B
The question now is: what is the meaning to be attnbuted to the
words "profession",."occupation", "trade" or "business".

In P. Ramanatha Aiyar's Law Lexicon Reprint Edfation 1987 at page
C 897 "Occupation" means:
"The principal business of one's life, vocation, calling,
trade, the business which a man follows to procure a living
or obtain wealth: that which occupies or engages one's
-
time or attention, vocation, employment, calling, trade; the
D business in which a man is usually engaged, lo the
knowledge of his neighbour."

According to Black's Law Dictionary Fifth Edition al page 973 "Oc-
cupation" means:

E "Possession; control; tenure; use. The act or process
by which real property is possessed and enjoyed. Where
a person exercises physical control over land.

That which principally takes up one's time, thought,
and energies, especially, one's regular business or employ-
F ment; also, whatever one follows as the means of making
. a livelihood. Particular business, profession, trade, or call-
ing which engages individual's time and efforts; employ-
ment in which one regularly engages or vocation of his
life.'
G
InP.V.G. Raju v, Commissioner of Expenditure, ITR Vol. 86 page U.7
it is observed thus:

"The activity termed as "Occupation', if of wider im-
port than vocation or profession. It is also distinct from a
H hobby which can be resorted to only in leisure hours for
i
'
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF A.P. [MOHAN, J.] 721

the purpose of killing time. Occupation, therefore, is that A
with which a person occupies himself either temporarily or
permanently or for a considerable period with continuity
of activity. It is analogous to a business, calling or pursuit.
A person may have more than one occupation in a previous
year. The Occupations may be seasonal or for the whole
B
year."

"Firstly, there can be a business, profession, vocation
~. or occupation without any profit motive or on "no profit
no loss basis". To, illust~ate, co·operative societies· or
mutual insurance companies may carry on business c
without earning any income or without any profit motive.
The vocation or occupation to do social service of various
kinds for the uplift of the people would also come under
this category. The profit motive or earning of income is
not an essential ingredient to constitute the activity,
-..... termed as business, pr-Jfession, vocation or occupation.11 D

"If any authority is needed, we find it in Commissioner
of Expenditure Tax v. Mrs. Manorama Silrabhai, {1966) 59
ITR 262 (Guj.) wherein it was held that the educational
activities of the assessees amounted to an occupation E
within the meaning of Section 5(a) and that no profit
-1.... motive is necessary to treat an activity as .a vocation or
occupation within the meaning of Section 5(a). For all
these reasons, we must negative this submission of Mr.
Ramarao relating to the interpretation of the words "busi·
ness, profession, vocation or occupation 11 in section 5(a) F
of the Act.'

·-· In P.K. Menon v. Income-tax Commissioner, (1959]
Supp. 1 SCR 133 at p. 137 this Court observed as follows:
G
'We find no difficulty in thinking that teaching is a
vocation if not a profession. It is plainly so and it is not
necessary to discuss the various meanings of the word
"vocation' for the purpose or to cite authorities to support
this view. Nor do we find any reason why, if teaching is a
vocation, teaching of Vedanta· is not. It is just as much H
722 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A teaching and therefore, a vocation, as any other teaching.
It is said that in teaching Vedanta the appellant was only
practising religion. We are unable to see why teaching of
Vedanta as a matter of religion is not carrying on of a
vocation."
B "It is· said that as the word "Vocation" has been used
along with the words "business" and "profession" and the
object of business and a profession, is to make a profit, only
such activities can be included in the word 'Vocation" the
object of which likewise is to make a profit. We think that
c these contentions lack substance. We do not appreciate the
significance of saying that in order to become a vocation
an activity must be organised. If by that a continuous, or as
was ~aid, a systematic activity, is meant, we have to point
out that it is well known that a single act may amount to
the carrying on of a business or profession".
D
The meaning of "business" can be gathered from Law Lexicon Edition
1987 by Ramnath Iyer:

"Business is that which engages the time, talent and interest of a man"
E and is what a man proposes to himself. There may be a "Business' without
precuniary profit being at all contemplated. .~
11
Business11 and 1'Trade" : "Business" has a more exten-
sive meaning that "Trade" (per Willes, J. Harris v. Amery
35 L.J. C.P.92) But "Ordinarily speaking, Business is
F synonymous with "Trade", (per Chatterton V.C. Delany v.
Deleny, 15 L.R. Ir. 67). There may, however, be a "Busi-
ness' without pecuniary profit being at all contemplated
In such connection, "Busioess11 is a very much larger word
than Trade and the word Businessu is employed in order
11 11 11

to include occupations which would not strictly come
G within the meaning of the word 'Trade" (per Person, J.
Rolls v. Miller, 53 L.J. Ch. 101) per Scruitton. L.J. The
words "Trade" and "Business do not mean the same thing
11

..... on business, though usually business is carried on for
profit. It is to be presumed that the Railways are run on
H a profit, though it may be that occasionally they are run
(
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF A.P. [MOHAN, J.] 723

at a loss." A
"Monetary consideration for service is, therefore, not
an essential characteristic of industry in a modern State".

In Hindustan Steel Limited v. State of Orissa, [1970) 1
SCR 753 it is observed: B
"A person to be a dealer within the meaning of the Act
must carry on the business of selling or supplying goods
in Orissa. The expression, "business" is not defined in the
Act. But as observed by this Court in State of Andhra
Pradesh v. Abdul Bakshi, (1964) 7 SCR 664: c
"The expression "business" though extensively used as
a word of indefinite import, in trucing statutes it is used in
the sense of an occupation, or profession which occupies
the time, attention and labour of a person, normally with
the object of making profit. To regard an activity as
D
business there must be a course of dealings, either actually
continued or contemplated to be continued with a profit
motive, and no for sport of pleasure."

In Barendra Prasad Ray v. The Income-tax Officer, A!Rii.981 SC 1047: E
[1981) 3 SCR 387 at 400 B and H and 401 A and B it is observed:

"The expression ''business" does Iiot necessarily mean
trade or manufacture only. It is being used as including
within its scope profession, vocations and calling from a
fairly long time. The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary F
defines "Business" as stated occupation, profession or
_,.,... ·trade" and a man of business" is defmed as meaning ."an
attorney" also. In view of the above dictionary meaning of
the word "business" it cannot be .said that the definition of
business given in Section 45 of the Partnership Act, 1890 G
(53 & 54 Viet. C. 39) was an extended definition intended
for the purpose of that Act only. Section 45 of that Act
says:

'The. expression "Bnsiness" includes every Trade, oc-
cupation, or profession". H
724 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993] 1 S.C.R.

A "Section 2(b) of the Indian Partnership Act, 1932 also
defines "Business" thus:~

"Business" includes every trade, occupation and
profession."

B "The observation of Rowlatt, J. in, Christopher Barker
& Sons v. Commissioner of Inland Revenue, (1919) 2 KB
222 at p.228. "All professions are businesses, but all busi-
nesses are not professions, ..." also supports the view that
professions are generally regarded as business. The same
C learned Judge in an other case Commissioner of Inland
Revenue v. Marine Steam Turbine Co. Ltd., (1920) I.KB.
193 held:

"The word "Business" however is also used in another
and a very different sense, as meaning an active occupa-
D tion or profession continuously carried on and it is in this
•ense the word is used in the Act with which we are here
11
concerned •

"The word Business'' is one of wide import and it means
11

an activity carried on continuously and systematically by a
E person by the application of his labour skill with a view to
earning an income. We are of the view that in the context
in which the expression "business" is used in Section 9(1)
of the Act, there is no warrant for giving a restricted
meaning to it excluding professional connections from its
F scope".

In each of these cases, depending upon the statute, either "occupation'.
or "business" has come to be defined. Certainly, it cannot be contended that
establishment of an educational institution wonld be "business". Nor again,
could that be called trade since no trading activities carried on. Equally, it is
G not a profession. It is one thing to say that teaching is a profession but, it is a
totally different thing to urge that establishment of an educational institution
wonld a profession. It may perhaps fall under the category of occupation
provided no recognition is sought from the State or affiliation from the Univer- -"".
sity is asked on the basis that it is afundamental right. This position is explained
H below: ·
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [MOHAN, J.] 725

However, some of the learned counsel relied .on Bangalore Water A
Supply and Sewerage Board v. R. Rajappa, [1978) 3 SCR W7 to urge that the
activity of running an educational institution was ·an industry. In that case,
Krishna Iyer, J. observed:

"To christian education as a mission, even if true, is
not to negate it being an Industry, we have to look at B
education activity from the angle of the Act and so viewed
the ingredients of education are fulfilled. Education is,
J.. therefore, an industry nothing can stand in the way of that
conclusion."

This ruling was relied on in Miss Sundarambai v. Government of Goa,
c
[1988) Suppl 1 SCR 604 at page 608B. It was held:

"Thus it is seen that even though an educational in-
stitution has to be treated as an· industry in view of the
decision in the Bangalore Water Supply ·and Sewerage D
Board v. R. Rajappa (supra) the question whether teachers
in an educational institution can be considered as
workmen still remains to be decided."

It requires to be carefully noted that while considering as to what would
constitute an industry under the Industrial Disputes Act, these observations E
~ came to be made. Certainly, that is very different from claiming a fundamen-
tal right under Article 19(1) (g).

Even on general principles, the matter could be approached this way.
Educational institutions can be classified under two categories:
F
1. Those requiring recognition by the State and

2. Those who do not require such a recognition,

It is not mere an establishment of educational institution, that is
urged by the petitioners, but, to run the ·educational institution dependent G
on recognition by the State. There is absolutely no fundamental right to
recognition in any citizen. The right to establishment and rim the educa-
tional institution with State's recognition arises only on the State permit-
ting, pursuant to a policy decision or on the fulfilment of the conditions of
the Statute. Therefore, where it is dependent on the permission under the H
726 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993] 1 S.C.R.

A Statute or the exercise of an executive power, it cannot qualify to be a
fundamental right. Then again, the State policy may dictate a different
course.

The logical corollary of holding that a fundamental right to establish
B an educational institution is available under Article 19(1) (g) would lead
to the proposition, right to establish a university also. In fact, this Court
had occasion to point out in S. Azeez Basha and Anr v. Union of India,
[1968] 1 SCR 833 at page 848 thus:

C "Before we do so we should like to say that the words
"educational institutions" are of very wide import and
would include a university also. This was not disputed on
behalf of the Union of India and therefore it may be
accepted that a religious minority had the right to establish
D a university under Art..30( 1). The position with respect to
the establishment of Universities before the Constitution
came into force in 1950 was this. There was no law in India
which prohibited any private individual or body from
establishing a university and it was therefore open to a
private individual or body to establish a university. There
E is a good deal in common between educational institutions
which are not universities and those which are universities.
Both teach students and both have teachers for the pur-
pose. But what distinguishes a university from any other
educational institution is that a university grants degrees
F of its own while other educational institutions cannot. It
is this granting of degrees by a university which distin-
guishes it from the ordinary run of educational institutions.
(See St. David's College, Lampeter v. Ministry of Educa-
tions 19511 Ail E.R. 559). Thus in law in India there was
no prohibition against establishment of universities by
G private individuals or bodies and if any university was so
established it must of necessity be granting degrees before
it could be called a university. But though such a university
might be granting degrees it did not follow that the
Government of the country was bound to recognise those
H degrees."
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [MOHAN, J.) 727

It there is no fundamental right to establish a university a fortiori a A
\c- fundamental right to establish an educational institution is not available.

By implication also a fundamental right of the nature and character
conferred under Article 30 cannot be read into Article 19(1) (g). The
conferment of such a right on the minorities in a positive way under Article
30 negatise the assumption of a fundamental right in this behalf in every B
citizen of the country.

In Alvnedabad St. Xaviers College Society v. State of Gujarat, (1975]
1 SCR 173 at page 191.it is observed:

"The right to establish and administer educational in- c
stitutions of their choice has been conferred on religious and
/inquistic minorities so that the majority who can always
have their rights by having proper legislation do not pass a
legislation prohibiting minorities to establish and administer
educational institutions of their choice. If the scope of D
Article 30( 1) is made an extension of the right under
Article 29{1) as the right to establish and administer
educational institutions for giving religious instruction or
for imparting education in their religious teachings or
tenets the fundamental right of minorities to establish and
administer educational institution of their choice will be E
taken away.

(Emphasis Supplied)

At page 192 it is observed:
F
'Article 30 is a special right to minorities to establish
educational institutions of their choice. This Court said
that the two Articles create two separate rights though it
is possible that the rights might meet in a given case.

The real reason embodied in Article 30 ( 1) of the G
Constitution is the conscience of the nation that the
minorities, religious as well as linguistic, are not prohibited
from establishing and administering educational institu-
tions of their choice for the purpose of giving their
children the best general education to make them com- H
7'2J!. SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.C.R.

A plete men and women of the country. The minorities are
given this protection under Article 30 in order to preserve
and strengthen the integrity and unity of the country. The
sphere of general secular education is intended to develop
tlie commonness of boys and girls of our country. This is
in the true spirit of liberty, ~quality and fraternity through
B
the medium of education. If religious or linguistic
minorities are not given protection under Article 30 to
establish and administer educational institutions of their
choice, they will feel isolated and separate. General
secular education will open doors of perception and act
c as the natural light of mind for our countrymen to live in
the whole."

Then again, at page 224 it is observed:

D "The idea of giving some special rights to the minorities
is not to have a kind of privileged or pampered section of
the population but to give to the minorities a sense of
oecurity and a feeling of confidence. The great leaders of
India since time immemorial had preached the doctrine
of tolerance and cathnolicity of outlook. Those noble ideas
E were enshrined in the '::onstitution. Special rights fo~
minorities were designed not to create inequality. Theif
real effect was to bring about equality by ensuring the
preservation of the minority institutions and by guarantee-
ing to the minorities autonomy in the matter of the ad-
F ministration of these institutions. The differential
treatment for the minorities by giving them special rights
is intended to bring about an equilibrium, so that the ideal
of equality may not be reduced to a mere abstract idea
but should become a living reality and result in true,
genuine equality, an equality not merely in theory but also
G in fact. The majority in a system of adult franchise hardly
needs any protection. It can look after itself and protect
its interesti;. Any measure wanted by the majority can
without much difficulty be brought on the ·statute book
because the majority can get that done by giving such a
H mandate to the elected representatives. It is only the
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF A.P. [MOHAN, J.] 729

minorities who need protection, and article 30, besides some A
other articles, is intended to afford and guarantee that
protection.

(Emphasis supplied)

The argument that every activity or occupation by the mere fact of B
its not being abnoxious or harmful to society; cannot by itself be entitled
to proteCtion as fundamental right. As pointed out above, some rights, by
l._ the very nature, cannot be qualified to be protected as fundamental rights.

Accordingly, it is held that there is no fundamental right under C
Article 19(1) (g) to establish an educational institution, if recognition or
affiliation is sought for such an educational institution. It may be made
clear that any one desirous of starting an institution purely for the purposes
of educating the students he could do so but Sections 22 and 23 of the
University Grants Commission Act which prohibits the award of degrees
except by a University must be kept in mind. D

The next question which· calls for determination is; does recognition
or affiliation make the educational institution an instrumentality ? We
propose to examine this question with reference to the following cases.

In Ajay Hasia v. Khalid Mujib Sehravardi, [1981] 2 SCR 79 at pages E
96 and 97 it was observed:

'The tests for determining as to when a corporation
can be said to be an instrumentality or agency of Govern-
ment may now be called out from the judgment in the F
International Airport Authority's case. These tests are not
conclusive or clinching, but they are merely indicative
indicia which have to be used with care and caution,
because while stressing the necessity of a wide meaning
to be placed on the expression "other authorities', it must
be realised that it should not be stretched so far as to G
bring in every autonomous body which has some nexus
with the Government within the sweep of the expression.
A wide enlargement of the meaning must be tempered by
a wi:;e limitation. We may summarise the relevant tests
gathered from the decision in the International Airport H
730 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.C.R.

A Authority's case as follows:

(1) "One thing is clear that if the entire share capital
of the corporation is held by Government it would go a
long way towards indicating that the corporation is an
instrumentality or, agency of Government.'
B
(2) "Where the fmancial assistance of the State is so
much as to meet almost entire expenditure of the corpora-
tion, it would afford some indication of the corporation
being impregnated with governmental character.'
c (3) 'It may also be a relevant factor ... whether the
corporation enjoys monopoly status which is the State
conferred or State protected."

( 4) 'Existence of deep and pervasive State control may
D afford an indication that the Corporation is a State agency
or instrumentality."

(5) "If the functions of the corporation of public im-
portance and clossely related to governmental functions,
it would be a relevant factor in classifying the corporation
E as an instrumentality or agency of Government."

(6) "Specifically, if a department of Government is
transferred to a corporation, it would be a strong factor
supportive of this inference of the corporation being an
instrumentality or agency of Government.'
F
If on a consideration of these relevant factors it is
found that the corporation is an instrumentality or agency
of government, it would, as pointed out in the International
Airpon Authority's case, be an 'authority' and, therefore,
'State' within the meaning of the expression in Article 12.
G
We fmd that the same view has been taken by Chin-
nappa Reddy, J. in a subsequent decision of this Court in
the U.P. Warehousing Corporation v. Vijay Narain, [1980)
3 sec 459 and the observations made by the learned
H Judge in that case strongly reinforced the view, we are
~

UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [MOHAN, J.] 731

taking particularly in the matrix of our constitutional sys- A
tern."
k
Ranganath Mishra, J. (as he then was), speaking for the Court, after
a succinct analysis of the entire case law on the subject concludes in Tekraj
Vasandi v. Union of India, (1988) 1 SCC 236 at page 257 as under:
B
'We have several cases of societies registered under
Societies Registration Act which have been treated as
'State' but in each of those cases it would appear on
*-- analysis that either governinental business had been un-
dertaken by the Society or what was expected to be the
c
- public obligation of the 'State' had been undertaken to be
performed as a part of the Society's function. In a Welfare
State, as has been pointed out on more than one occasion
by this Court, governmental control is very pervasive and
in fact touches all aspects of social existence. In the
absence of a fair application of the tests to be made, there D
is possibility of turning every non-governmental society
into an agency or instrumentality of the State. That ob-
viously would not serve the purpose and may be far from
reality. A broad picture of the matter has to be taken and
a discerning mind has to be applied keeping the realities E
and human experiences in view so as to reach a reasonable -
-~
conclusion. Having given our anxious consideration to the
facts of this case, we are not in a position to hold that
!CPS is either an agency or instrumentality of the State so
as to come within the purview of 'other authorities' in
Article 12 of the Constitution. We must say that ICPS is F
a case of its type - typical in many ways and the normal
~--
tests may perhaps not properly apply to test its character."

The same learned Judge, after referring to the tests adumberated in
,<
Ajay Hasia (supra), holds in All India Sainik Schools Employees' Assn. v.
G
Sainik Schools Society, (1989) Supp 1 SCC 205 at 212:

- I,...
"..... that the Sainik School Society is also 'State'. The
entire funding is by the State Governments and the
Central Government. The overall control vests in the
governmental authority. The main object of the Society is H
732 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.C.R.

A to run schools and prepare stJdents for the purpose of ',
feeding the National Defence Academy. Defence of the
~
country is one of the regal functions of the State." l.

Applying these tests, we find it impossible to hold that a private
educational institution either by recognition or affiliation to the university
B could ever be called an instrumentality of State. Recognition is for the
purposes of conforming to the standards laid down by the State. Affiliation
is with regard to the syllabi and the course of study. Unless and until they
are in accordance with the prescription of the University, degrees would ~
not be conferred. The educational institutions prepare the students for the
c examination conducted by the university. Therefore, they are obliged to
follow the syllabi and the course of the study.
l."-

As a sequel to this, an important question arises: what is the nature
of functions discharged by these institutions ? They discharge a public duty.
If a student desires to acquire a degree, for example, in medicine, he will
D ,,,....-
have to route through a medical college. These medical colkges are the
instruments to attain the qualification. If, therefore, what is discharged by
the educational institution, is a public duty that requires, duty and act fairly.

In such a case, it will be subject to Article 14.
E Andi Mukta Sadguru Shree Muktajee Vandas Swami Suvama Jayanti
Mahotsav Samarak Trust v. V.R. Rudani, [1989) 2 SCC 691 is an interesting
>-..
case where a writ of mandamus was issued to a private college. In para-
graph 12 at page 697 it was held:

F "The essense of the attack on the maintainability of the
writ petition under Article 226 may now be examined. It
is argued that the management of the college being a trust
registered under the Bomaby Public Trust Act is not
amenable to the writ jurisdiction of the High Court. The
contention in other words, is that the trust is a private
--
G institution against which no writ of mandamus can be
issued. In support of the contention, the counsel relied
upon two decisions of this Court : (a) Executive Committee •
of Vaish Degree College, Shamli v. Lakshmi Narain, (1976) ~
2 SCC 58 and (b) Deepak Kumar Bi:;wu.; v. Director of
H Public Instructions, [1987) 2 SCC 252. In the first of the
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [MOHAN, J.] 733

two cases, the respondent institution was a Degree College A
managed by a registered co-operative society. A suit was
~-
filed against the college by the dismissed principal for
reinstatement. It was contended that the Executive Com-
mittee of the college which was registered under the
Co-operative Societies Act and affiliated to the Agra
B
University (and subsequently to Meerut University) was a
statutory body. The importance of this contention lies in
the fact that in such as case, reinstatement could be
~-- ordered if the dismissal is in violation of statutory obliga-
tion. But this Court refused to accept the contention. It
was observed that the management of the college was not c
~-
a statutory body since not created by or under a statute.
It was emphasised that an institution which adopts certain
statutory provisions will not become a statutory body and
the dismissed employee cannot enforce a contract of per-
sonal service against a nm1-statutory body."
D
At paragraphs 15 to 20 it was held:

"If the rights are purely of a private character no
mandamus can issue. If the management of the college is
purely a private body with no public duty mandamus will E
~ not lie. These are two exceptions to mandamus. But once
these are absent anct when the party has no other equally
convenient remedy, mandamus cannot be denied. It has
to be appreciated that the appellants-trust was managing
the affiliated college to which public_ money is paid as F
g0verl1lllent aid. Public money paid as government aid
plays a major role in the contro~ maintenance and working
of educational institutions. The aided institutions like
government institutions discharge public function by way
of imparting education to students. They are subject to
the rules and regulations of the affiliating University. Their G
activities are closely supervised by the U oiversity
authorities. .Employment ln such institutions, therefore, is
not devoid of any public character. (See The Evolving
Indian~dministrative Law byM.P. Jain (1983) p. 226) So
are the service conditions of the academic staff. When the H
734 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993] 1 S.C.R.

A University takes a decision regarding their pay scales, it
will be binding on the management. The service conditions
of the academic staff are, therefore, not purely of a private
character. It has super-added protection by University
decisions creating a legal right-duty relationship between
the staff and the management. When there is existence of
B this relationship, mandamus cannot be refused to the
aggrieved party.

The law relating to mandamus ha!. made the most
spectacular advance. It may be recalled that the remedy
c by prerogative writs in England started with very limited
scope and suffered from many procedural disadvantages.
To overcome the difficulties, Lord Gardiner (the Lord
Chancellor) in purusance of Section 3(1) (e) of the Law
Commission Act, 1965, requested the Law Commission
"to review the existing remedies for the judicial control of
D
administrative acts and omissions with a view to evolving
a simpler and more effective procedure". The Law Com-
mission made their report in March 1976 (Law Commis-
sion Report No. 73). It was implemented by Rules of
Court (Order 53) in 1977 and given statutory force in 1981
E by Section 31 of the Supreme Court Act, 1981. It com-
bined all the former remedies into one proceeding called
Judicial Review. Lord Denning explains the scope of this
"judicial review":

F "At one storke the courts could grant whatever relief
was appropriate. Not only certiorari and mandamus, but
also declaration and injunction. Even damages. The pro-
cedure was much more siniple and expeditious. Just a
summons instead of a writ. No formal pleadings. The
evidence was given by affidavit. As a rule no cross-ex-
G amination, no discovery, and so forth. But there were
important safeguards. In particular, in order to qualify,
the applicant had to get the leave of a judge.

The statute is phrased in flexible terms. It gives scope
H for development. It uses the 'words "having regard to".
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STA1E OF AP. [MOHAN, J.] 735

Those words are indefinite. The res11lt is that the courts A
are not bound hand and foot by the previous law. They
are to 'have regard to' it. So the previous law as to who
are - and who are not - public authorities, is not absolutely
binding.. Nor is the previous law as to the matters in
respect of which relief may be granted. This means that
B
the judges can develop the public law as they think best.
That they 'have done and are doing. (See The Closing
Chapter by Rt. Hon. Lord Denning p. 122)"

There, however, the prerogative writ of mandamus is
confined only to public authorities to compel performance c
of public duty. The 'public authority' for them mean every
body which is created by statute - and whose powers and
duties are defined by statute. So government departments,
local authorities, police authorities, and statutory under-
takings and corporations, are .all 'public authorities'. But
there is no such limitation for our High Courts to issue D
the writ in the nature of mandamus. Article 226 confers
wide powers on the High Courts to issue writs in the
nature of prerogative writs. This is a striking departure
from the English law. Under Article 226, writs can be
issued to "any person or authority''. It can be issued "for E
the enforcement of any of the fundamental rights and for
any other purpose'. •

18. Article 226 reads:

226. Power of High Courts to issue certain writs. - (1) F
Notwithstanding anything in Article 32, every High Court
s'&all have power, throughout the territories in relation to
which it exercises jurisdiction, to issue to any person or
authority including in appropriate cases, any government,
within those territories directions, orders and writs, in-
G
cluding writs in the nature of habeas corpus, mandamus,
prohibition, quo warranto and certiorari, or any of them,
for the enforcement of any of the rights conferred by Part
III and for any other purpose.

,The scope of this article has been explained by Subba H
736 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.C.R.

A Rao, J., In Dwarkanath v. ITO, [1%5) 3 SCR 536:

This article is couched in comprehensive phraseology
and it ex-facie confers a wide power on the High Courts
to reach injustice wherever it is found. The Constitution
designedly used a wide language in describing the nature
B of the power, the purpose for which and the person or
authority against whom it can be exercised. It can issue
writs in the nature of prerogative writs as understood in
England; but the scope of those writs also is widened by
the use of the expression "nature", for the said expression
c does not equate the writs that can be issued in India with
those in England, but only draws an analogy from them.
That apart, High Courts can also issue directions, orders
or writs other then the prerogative writs. It enables the
High Court to mould the reliefs to meet the peculiar and
complicated requirements of this country. Any attempt to
D equate the scope of the power of the High Court under J
Article 226 of the Constitution with that of the English
courts to issue prerogative v.Tits is to introduce the un-
necessary procedural restrictions grown over the years in
a comparatively small country like England with a unitary
E form of government into a vast country like India function-
ing under a federal structure. Such a construction defeats ~
the purpose of the article itself.

The term "authority" used in Article 226, the context
F must receive a liberal meaning unlike the term in Article
12. Article 12 is relevant only for the purpose of enforce-
ment of fundamental rights under Article 32. Article 226
confers power on the High Courts to issue writs for
enforcement of the fundamental rights as well as non-fun-
--
damental rights. The words "any person or authority" used
G in Article 226 are, therefore, not to be confined only to
statutory authorities and instrumentalities of the Sta.le.
They may cover any other person or body performing
public duty. The form of the body concerned is not very ~
much relevant. What is relevant is the nature of the duty
H imposed on the body. The duty must be judged in the light
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STAlE OF A.P. [MOHAN, J.] 737

of positive obligation owed by the person or authority to A
the affected party. No matter by what means the duty is
imposed, if a positive obligation exists mandamus cannot
be denied.

The emphasis in this case is as to the nature of duty imposed on the
body. It requires to be observed that the meaning of authority underArticle B
226 came to be laid down distinguishing the same term from Article 12. In
spite of it, if the emphasis is on the nature of duty on the same principle
it has to be held that these educational institutions discharge public duties.
Irrespective of the educational institutions receiving aid it should be held
that it is a public duty. The absence of aid does not detract from the nature C
of duty.

In R. v. Panel on Take-Overs, 1987 (1). All England Reports 564 at
page 568 it is observed:
D
"The principal issue in this appeal, and the only issue which
may matter in the longer term, is whether this remarkable
body is above law. Its respectablity is beyond question. So
is its bona fides. I do not doubt for one moment that it is
intended to and does operate in the public interest and that
the enormously wide discretion which it arrogates to itself E
is necessary if it is to function efficiently and effectively.
While not wishing to become involved in the political
controversy on the relative merits of self-regulation and
governmental or statutory regulation, I am content to as-
sume for the purposes of this appeal that self-regulation is F
preferable in the public interest. But that said, what is to
__-. happen if the pa.'lel goes off the rails ? Suppose, perish the
thought, that it were to use its powers in a way in which
was manifestly unfair. What then ? Counsel for the panel
submits that the panel would lose the support of public
opinion in the financial markets and would be unable to G
continue to operate. Further or alternatively, Parliament
could and would intervene. Maybe, but how long would
that take and who in the meantime could or would come·
to the assistance of those who were being oppressed by
such conduct ?" H
>
738 SUPREME COURT REPORTS (1993) 1 S.C.R.

A At page 574 it is held:

'The picture which emerges is clear. As an act of
government it was decided that, in relation to take-overs,
there should be a central self-regulatory body which would
be supported and sustained by a periphery of statutory
B powers and penalties wherever non-statutory powers and
penalties were insufficient or non-existent or where EEC
requirements called for statutory provisions.'

.At page 577 it is held:
c "In fact, given its novelty, the panel fits surprisingly well
into the format which this court had in mind in R.v.
Criminal Injuries Compensation Board. It is without doubt
performing a public duty and an important one. This is
clear from the expressed willingness of the Secretary of
D State for Trade and Industry to limit legislation in the field T
of take-overs and mergers and to use the panel as the
centrepiece of his regulation of that market. The rights of
citizens are indirectly affected by its decisions, some, but
by no means all of whom, may in a technical sense be said
to have assented to this ~ituation, e.g. the members of the
E
Stock Exchange. At least in its determination of whether
,i._
there has been a breach cif the code, it has a duty to act
judicially and it·asserts that its raison de'tre is to do equity
between one shareholder and another. It~ source of power
is only partly based on moral persuasion and the assent
F of institu\jons and their members, the bottom line being
the statutory powers exercised by the Department of
Trade and Industry and the Bank of England. In this
context I should be very disappointed if the courts could
not recognise the realities of executive power and allowed
their vision to the clouded by the subtlety and sometimes
G
complexity of the way in which it ·can be exerted.

Given that it is really unthinkable that, in the absence
. of legislation such as affects trade unions, the panel should .,.(_
go on its way cocooned from the attentio~ of the courts,
H in defence of the citizenry, we sought to investigate
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF A.P. [MOHAN, J.] 739

wheth~r it could conveniently be controlled bY established A
forms of private law e.g. torts such as actionable combina-
~
lions in restraint of trade, and, to this end, pressed counsel
for the applicants to draft a writ. Suffice it to say that the
result was wholly unconvincing and, not surprisingly, coun-
sel for the panel did not admit that it would be in the least
B
effective."

At page 584 it is held:

"More recently m . R.v. BBC, exp Lavelle, (1983) 1 All'
ER 2451 (1983) 1 WLR Woolf J bad to consider an
c
application for judicial review where the relief sought was
an injuction under Ord 53, 1 (2). The case was brought
by an employee of the BBC. In refusing relief Woolf J said
(1983) ~ All ER 241 at 249, 1983 1 WLR 23 at 31:

T "Paragraph (2) of r 1 of Ord 53 does not strictly confine D
applications for judicial review to cases where an order
for mandamus, prohibition or Certiorari could be granted.
It Merely requires that the court should have regard to
the nature of the matter in respect of which such relief
may be granted. However, although applications for judi-
E
__._ cial review are not confined to those cases where relief
could be granted by way of prerogative order, I regard the
wording of Ord 53, r 1 (2) and sub-s (2) of s 31 of the
Supreme Court Act 1981 as making it clear that the
application for judicial review is confined to reviewing ac-
titivities of a public nature as opposed to those of a purely F
private or domestic character. The disciplinary appeal pro-
cedure set up by the BBC depends purely on the contract
of employment between the applicant and the BBC, and
therefore it is a procedure of a purely private or domestic
character."
G
PRIVATE COLLEGES AND THEIR ROLE:
;,..__ The Union of India takes the stand that the Central Government
does not have the resources to undertake any additional financial respon-
sibilty for medical or technical education. Taking the case of medical H
>
740 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.C.R.

A education, the total plan outlay for the health sector is 3.2 per cent and
medical education gets a pro-rata share after aportionn:ent of priorities
and allocation of available funds. Priorities include promotions of primary -./
health, hospital services etc. The Government in particular is unable to aid
any private educational institution financially at levels higher than at
present. Certain statistical .J;,tails regarding the cost of medical education
B have been given in the counter affidavit of the Central Government.
Paragraphs 5 to 9 of the affidavit may kindly be seen in this connection.

It has, therefore, been the policy of the Central Government to
involve private and voluntary efforts in the sector of education in conform-
C ity with accented norms and goals. The adverse consequences which will
follow if private educational institutions have to limit themselves to a fee
structure which is charged in Government medical and technical educa-
tional ·institutions have been enumerated in paragraph 9 of the counter
affidavit of the Union of India.

D The Central Government's policy on education was formulated in the
year 1986. Modifications were undertaken in 1992.

The relevant extracts from the National Policy on Education, being
paragraph 6.20, 10.1, 10.9 and 11.2 are set out herein below:
E
'6.20 In the interests of maintaining standards and for
several other valid reasons, the commercialisation of tech-
nical and professional education will be curbed. An alter-
native system will be devised to involve private and
voluntary effort in this sector of education, in conformity
F with accepted norms and goals."

'10.1 An overhaul of the system of planning and the
management of education will receive high priority. The
guiding considerations will be:
G (a) Evolving a long-term planning and mangement
perspective of education and its integration with the
country's developmental and manpower needs:

(b) Decentralisation and the creation of a spirit of
H autonomy for educational institutions;
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [MOHAN, J.] 741

(c) Giving pre-eminence to people, involvement, including A
association of non-governmental agencies and voluntary
effort;

( d) Inducting more women in the planning and manage-
ment of education;
B
(e) Establishing the principle of accountability in relation
to given objectives and norms. 11

"10.9 Non-Government and voluntary effort including so-
cial activist groups will be encouraged, subject to proper c
management, and financial assistance provided. At the
same time, steps will be taken to prevent the establishment
of institutions set up to commercialise education."

"11.2 Resources, to the extent possible, will be raised by D
mobilising donations, asking the beneficiary communities
to maintain school buildings and supplies of some con-
sumables, raising fees at the higher levels of education and
effecting some savings by the efficient use of facilities.
Institutions involved with research and the development of
technical and scientific manpower should also mobilize E
-1_ some funds by levying a cess or charge on the user agencies,
including Government departments, and enterpreneurs.
All these measures will be taken not only to reduce the
burden on State resources but also for creating a greater
sense of responsibility within the educational system. How- F
ever, such measures will contribute only marginally to the
total funding. The Government and the community in
general will find funds for such programmes as; the univer-
salisation of elementary education; liquidating illiteracy;
equality of access to educational opportunities to all sec-
lions throughout the country; enhancing the social G
relevance, quality and functional effectiveness of educa-
tional programmes; generating knowledge and developing
technologies in scieDtific fields crucial to self-sustaining
:.-. economic development and creating a critical conscious-
ness of the values and imperatives of national survival." H
>
742 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993] 1 S.C.R.

A Therefore, as on today, it would be unrealistic and unwise to dis-
courage private initiative in providing educational facilities, particularly for
higher education. The private sector should be involved and indeed en-
couraged to augment the much needed resources in the field of education,
thereby making as much progress as possible in achieving the constitutional
goals in this respect. It could be concluded that the private colleges are the
B felt necessities of time. That does not mean one should tolerate the
"so-called colleges" run in thatched huts with hardly any equipment, with
no or improvised laboratories, scarce facility to learn in an unhealthy
atmosphere, far from conducive to education. Such of them must be put
down ruthlessly with an iron hand irrespective of who has started the
c institution or who desires to set up such an institution. They are poisonous
weeds in the field of education. Those who venture are financial adven-
turers without morals or scrupules. Their only aim is to make money,
driving a hard bargain, exploiting eagerness to acquire a professional
degree which would be a passport for employment in a country rampant
D with unemployment. They could be even called pirates in the high seas of
education.

At this juncl ure, it is worthwhile to refer to the Resolution passed at
the 48th All India Medical Conference:

E "Resolution No. 2

Racketeering in Medical Education:

Whereas, a number of institutions have sprung up in
the country that style themselves as Medical College; and
F
Whernas, such institutions charge large sums as capita-
tion fees, a practice which the Indian Medical Association
and the Medical Council of India have opposed a number
of times; and

G Whereas, such institutions neither have suitable build-
ings, nor proper equipment and even lack adequate staff
of requisite qualifications and further it has come to light
that these institutions swindle the public by taking large
sums of money from students although these institutions
H have not been recognised by the authorities;
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [MOHAN, J.] 743

This 48th All India Medical Conference urges upon A
the Governments to take stringent measures against per-
~ sonsfmstitutions who/which run such medical colleges and
close them and recommend to the Medical Council of
India not to grant them recognition.

(48th Conference Dec. 29, 31, 1972 at Ahmedaad)" B

However, a word of caution requires to be uttered. Not all the private
:J... instutions belong to this category. There are institutions which have at-
tained great reputation by devotion and by nurturing high educational
standards. They surpass the colleges run by the Government in many
respects. They require encouragement. From this point of view regulatory
c
_,_ controls have to be continued and strengthened. The commercialisation of
education, the racketeering must be prevented. The State should strive its
utmost in this direction.

'r Regulatory measures must so ensure that private educational institu- D
lions maintain minimum standards and facilities. Admission within all
groups and categories should be based only on merit. There may be
reservation of seats in favour of the weaker sections of the >ociety and other
groups which deserve special treatment. The norms for admission should
be pre-determined, objective and transparent.
E
,.i. Before the scheme, a question may arise whether a mandamus could
issue for the enforcement of scheme if proposed by the Court. For this, we
may look up at Suman Gupta and Ors. v. State of J & Kand Ors., [1983] 3
SCR 985 at page 991:
F
'"The Medical Council of India is directed to forniulate
a proper constitutional basis for determining the selection
~ of candidates for nomination to seats in Medical Colleges
outside the State in the light of the observations contained
in this judgment. Until a policy is so formulated and
concrete criteria are embodied in the procedure selected, G
the nominations shall be made by selecting candidates
strictly on the 'basis of merit, the candidates nominated
_>... being those, in order of merit, immediately below the
candidates selected for admission to the Medical Colleges
of the home State.' H
>

744 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.C.R.

A It cannot be gainsaid that profiteering is an evil. If a public utility
like electricity could b.e controlled, certainly, the professional colleges also -/
require to be re!(lllated.

In Kera/a State Electricity Board v. S.N. Govinda Prabhu, [1986) 3
SCR it is held:
B
"It is a public utility monopoly undertaking which may
not be driven by pure profit notive not that profit is to be
shunned hut that service and not profit should inform its
actions. It is not the function of the Board to so manage
c its affairs as to earn the maximum profit even as a private
corporate body may be inspired to earn huge profits with
a view to paying large dividends to its shareholders. But
it does not follow that the Board may not and need not
-
earn profits for the purpose of performing its duties and
discharghg its obligations under the statute. It stands to
D common sense that the Board must manage its affairs on
sound economic principles. Having ventured into the field
of Commerce, no public service urdertaking can afford to
say it will ignore business principles which are as essential
to public service undertakings as to Commercial ventures."
E
At pages 650-51 it is held:

"The Board may not allow its character as a public
utility undertaking to be changed into that of a profit
motivated private trading or manufacturing house. Neither
F the tariffs nor the resulting surplus may reach such heights
as to lead to the inevitable conclusion that the Board has
shed its public utility character. When that happens the ·~.
Court may strike down the re\i,ion of tariffs as plainly
a!bitr~ry."

G
ln Oil and Natural Gas Commission andAnr v.Association of Natural
Gas Consuming Industries of Gujarat and otllers, [1990) Supp. SCC 397 at
399 it is held:

"The notion that the 'cost plus' basis can be the only
H criterion for fixation of prices in the case of public
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STAIB OF AP. [MOHAN, J.) 745

enterprises stems basically from the concept that such A
enterprises should function either on a no profit no loss
basis or on a minimum profit basis. This is not a correct
approach. In the case of vital commodities or services,
while private concerns must be allowed a minimal return
on capital invested, public undertakings or utilities may
B
even have to run at losses, if need be and even a minimal
return may not be assured. In the case of less vital, but
still basic commodities, they may be required to catr,r to
needs with a minimal profit margin for themselves. But
given a favourable area of operation, "commercial profits"
need not be either anathema or forbidden fruit even to c
public sector enterprises."

In Hindustan Zinc Ltd v. A.P.S.E.B., [1991] 3 SCC 299 at pages
306-307 it is held:

D
'This Court expressly rejected the submission which
had found favour with the Kerala High Court that in the
absence of a specification by the State Government, the
position would be as it was before the 1978 amendment,
that is, the Board was to carry on its affairs and adjust the
tariffs in such a manner as not to incur a loss and no more. E
While rejecting the submission, this Court held as under:
(SCC pp. 213-14, para 10)

"We are of the view that the failure of the government
to specify the surplus which may be generated by the F
··Board cannot prevent the Board from generating a surplus
after meeting the expenses required to be met. Perhaps,
the quantum of surplus may not exceed what a prudent
public service undertaking may be expected to generate
without sacrificing the interests it is expected to serve and
without being obsessed by the pure profit motive of the G
private entrepreneur. The Board may not allow its char-
acter as a public utility undertaking to be changed into
that of a profit motivated private trading or manufacturing
house. Neither the tariffs nor the resulting surplus may
reach such heights as to lead to the inevitable conclusion
746 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993) 1 S.C.R.

A that the Board has shed its public utility character. When
that happens the Court may strike down the revision of
tariffs as plainly arbiirary. But not until then. Not, merely
because a surplus has been generated, a surplus which can
by no means be said to be extravagant. The court will then
refrain from touching the tariffs. After all, as has been
B said by this Court often enough 'price fixation' is neither
the forte nor the function of the Court."

It cannot be conteded that education must be available free and it ·~
must be run on a charitable basis. In this connection, we may usefully quote
C P.R. Ganapathy lyer's The Law relating to Hindu and Mahomedan En-
dowments, as to the concept of charity which is elastic. At page 46 of Chap.
III it is stated:

"A charitable establishment is a choultry, college, dis-
pensary etc., while a religious establishment is a mosque,
D temple etc. For these endowments may be made.'

At page 47 it is stated:

'In English law the word 'charity'' has both a popular
and a technical meaning. The popular meaning of the
E word does not coincide with its legal or technical meaning.
Even according to the popular or ordinary meaning the
word is used in more senses than one. In a narrow and
limited sense the ordinary acceptation of the word is
"relief of physical necessity or want". (Per Lord Shand in
F Baird's Trustees v. Lord Advocate, 15 Sess. Cas. 4th Series
682) In a somewhat more extended sense, the ordinary
and popular acceptation of the word is "relief of poverty''
and 'a charitable act or purpose" consists in relieving
poverty or want. (Ibid per Lord President (Inglis). In a
still more extended sense and in its popular and ordinary
G acceptation "charity" comprehends all benefits, whether
religious, intellectual or physical bestowed upon persons
who, by reason of their poverty, are unable to obtain such
benefits for the~elves without assistance. (Per Lord Wat-
som in Commissioners for special purposes of Income-tax
H v. Pemse/ (1891) A.C. 531 (557).'
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [MOHAN, J.] 747

At page 49 it is stated: A

~ "Charity in its legal sense as understood in the English
Law comprises four principal divisions:- (1) trusts for the
relief of poverty; (2) trusts for the advancement of educa-
tion; (3) trusts for advancement of religion; ( 4) and trusts
for other purposes beneficial to the community not falling B
under any of the preceding heads."

In B.K. Mukherjee on the The Hindu Law of Religious and
Charitable Trust at page 58 para 2. 7A it is stated:

'2.7A. Education:- The second category on charitable
c
trusts in Lord McNaghten's classification comprises trusts
for education. These trusts need not be meant exclusively
for the poor. Of course, there must be a public purpose,
something tending to the benefit of the community. There
must be general public benefit through the advancement D
or furtherance of some educational purpose. But if this
important condition is satisfied, the scope of "education"
would appear to be fairly wide in several respects."

In St. Stephen's College v. University of Delhi, [1992) 1 SCC 558 at
E
page 609-10 it is held:
~
"The educational institutions are not business houses.
They do not generate wealth. They cannot survive without
public funds or private aid. It is said there is also restraint
on collection· of students fees. With the restraint on col- F
lection of fees, the minorities cannot be saddled with the
burden of maintaining educational institutions without
~·
grant-in-aid. They do not have economic advantage over
others. It is not possible to have educational institutions
without State aid. This was also the view expressed by Das,
G
CJ., in Kera/a Education Bill case, (1970) 2 SCC 417:
[1971) 1 SCR 734. The minorities cannot, therefore, be
asked to maintaill educational institutions on their own."
>-....

The time is not yet ripe to hold that education must be made
available on a charitable basis. It is true whenever trusts are made for H
748 SUPREME COURT REPORTS [1993] 1 S.C.R.

A advancement o~ education it was held to be a charitable purpose. In Special
Commissioners of Income-tax v. Pemsel, 3 Tax Cases 53 at 96 the dictum >./
of Lord Macnagbten is as follows:

"No doubt, the popular meaning of the words "charity"
and "charitable" does not coincide with their legal mean-
B ing, and no doubt it is easy enough to collect from the
books a few decisions which seem to push the doctrine of
the Court to the extreme, and to present a contrast be- ....,,
tween the two meanings in an aspect almost ludicrous. But
still it is difficult to fix the point of divergence, and no one
c has yet succeeded in defining the popular meaning of the
word "charity". The learned counsel for the Crown did not
attempt the task. Even the paraphrase of the Master of
the Rolls is not quite satisfactory .......... "Charity"
.
in its '
legal sense comprises four principal divisions: trusts for
the relief of poverty, trusts for the advancement of educa- ~ '
D tion, trusts for the advancement of religion, and trusts for
other purposes beneficial to the community not falling
under any of the preceding heads. Thr, trusts last referred
•"
to are not the less charitable in the eye of the law because
incidentally they benefit the rich as well as the poor, as
E indeed every charity that deserves the name must. do, ~
either directly or indirectly." >--..
The next case to which reference can be made is The King v. The t
Commissioner for Special Purposes of the Income-tax, 5 T&X cases 408. The
question arose whether the University College of North Wales could be
F held as established for charitable purposes. Fletcher Moulton, L.J. relying
on Pemsel's case (supra) held that a trust for advancement of education~
was charitable.

In TheAbbey Malvern Wells, Ltd v. Minister of Town and Co11ntry
G Planning, 1951 (2) All England Law Reports 154 at pages 160-161 it was
held:

"In the present case, it seems to me that one is entitled,
and indeed, bound, to look at the constitutional of the
company to see who, in fact, is in control. I find that, by
H Art. 3 of the company's articles, the company i~ controlled
UNNI KRISHNAN v. STATE OF AP. [MOHAN, J.] 749

entirely by a body called a council, a body of persons, and, A
by Art. 64 that body of persons must be the trustees of
the trust deed. Therefore, while the company, theoretical-
ly, has the power to apply its property and assets for the
purpose of making profits and devoting the resulting profit
to the distribution of divident among the members, I find
that the persons who regulate the operations of the com·
B
pany are not free persons unrestricted in their operations,
but are the trustees of the trust deed, and, under the terms
of the trust deed, they may use the property of the com-
pany only in a particular way and must not make us of the
assets of the company for the purpose of a profit-making c
concern. I find that they are strictly bound by the trusts
of the trust deed, and that those trusts are charitable
trusts. It seems to me, therefore, that, while nominally the
. property of the company is held under the provisions of
the memorandum and articles of association, in actual fact
D
the property of the company is regulated by the terms of
the memorandum and articles of association plus the
provisions of the trust deed, and, therefore, the company
is restricted in fact in application of its property and assets
and may apply them only for the charitable purposes
which are mentioned in the trust deed." E
This may be so, for the purpose of defining charity, but; in a country
like ours it is impossible to hold tht •mch theories could be advanced or
implemented.

N.P.V. Petitions and Appeals disposed of.